Urban precursors in the Horn: early 1st-millennium BC communities in Eritrea. (Special section).

Urban precursors in the Horn: early 1st-millennium BC communities in Eritrea. (Special section). Eritrea fought a war of liberation For the Napoleonic "War of Liberation", see War of the Sixth Coalition. A War of liberation is a conflict which is primarily intended to bring freedom or independence to a nation or group. for three decades between theearly 1960s and 1991. While professional research stagnated because ofthe war, amateur archaeologists provided the sole source of informationfor ancient material culture in the country during this era. With thecoming of independence in 1993, awareness of the potential value ofEritrea's heritage resources began to grow, leading to aninitiative in 1997 to teach archaeology and heritage management at theUniversity of Asmara The University of Asmara (UoA) was Eritrea's first university and is located in the capital city, Asmara. It was created by the Piae Madres Nigritiae (Camboni Sisters). The school was meant to provide for the local population, though its initial enrollment was entirely Italian. . Out of the combined training and research programmes conducted bythe University of Asmara have come several major discoveries that changethe way that the rise of urbanism is seen in the Horn of Africa Horn of Africa,peninsula, NE Africa, opposite the S Arabia Peninsula. Also known as the Somali Peninsula, it encompasses Somalia and E Ethiopia and is the easternmost extension of the continent, separating the Gulf of Aden from the Indian Ocean. . Wehighlight research showing that between 800 BC and 400 BC the greaterAsmara area of Eritrea supported the earliest settled agropastoralistcommunities known in the highlands of the Horn. These communitiespre-date and are contemporaneous with Pre-Aksumite settlements in thehighlands of southern Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. (1) The agropastoralist settlements around Asmara were vital precursorsto later 1st-millennium BC and early 1st-millennium AD urbandevelopments in the southern highlands of Eritrea at Keskese, Matara andQohaito. Matara, 90 km to the south of Asmara, was an urban centre ofbetween 20 and 40 ha, possibly even larger. It was likely an Aksumiteadministrative centre Administrative Centre (in Norwegian administrativt senter; in Portuguese centro administrativo) is often used in several countries to refer to a county town, or other seat of regional/local government, or the place where the central administration of a commune is that also had a significant Pre-Axumite settlementthat has been dated to approximately 500 BC by the French archaeologistFrancis Anfray (1967; 1974), suggesting that the communities aroundtoday's Asmara were the first in the region to show an organicgrowth toward demographic complexity. Another urban center, Qohaito,located approximately 70 km south of Asmara, was an ancient garden city(Schmidt & Wright 1995) surrounded by hundreds of satellite towns,villages and homesteads located on the 13x3 km Qohaito plateau (Wenig1997) and connected to a larger urban hinterland (Curtis & Libsekal1999). Qohaito remains unexcavated, but survey evidence indicates thatits urban character derives from a tradition that goes back to Mataraand the communities of the Greater Asmara area. We also discuss evidence that suggests the possible presence ofhumped cattle (Bos indicus) in the greater Asmara area about 500 BC,revising previous ideas about the arrival of this species in the Hornand assessing what importance it has for the development of a settledagropastoral way of life. Setting and background Asmara, the capital of Eritrea, is located at 2350 m a.s.l on aportion of the Eritrean highlands called the Asmara Plateau, a peneplain peneplainGently undulating, almost featureless plain near sea level. This would form, theoretically, by various erosional processes that reduce areas of initially high relief produced by active uplift to areas of virtually no relief. that ranges from approximately 2200 to 2500 m (Abul-Haggag 1961) (FIGURE1). In comparison to other parts of the highlands, the greater Asmaraarea is blessed with relatively fertile soils, a more moderate climate,a relatively flat plain for agriculture and a reliable supply of water. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Only Italian amateur archaeologists, V. Franchini and G. Tringali,focused on this region; their most significant identifications centredon what are called `Ona' sites. (2) The basic characteristics ofthe `Ona' sites and their material culture, particularly ceramicsand ground and chipped stone In archaeology, chipped stone refers to a method of manufacturing stone tools through lithic reduction, wherein lithic flakes are struck off a mass of tool stone with a percussor. figurines called `Bulls' heads',were described by Tringali in a number of Italian-language publications(Tringali 1965; 1967; 1969; 1973-77; 1980-81; 1987). These sites werementioned and identified as Pre-Aksumite by Anfray (1970). The potentialimportance of the Ona finds went mostly unnoticed in the archaeologicalworld until Rodolfo Fattovich drew attention to their significance forunderstanding early complex societies in the Horn. Calling these sitesboth the `Ona Culture' and `Ona Group-A', he argues that theOna ceramics bear affinities to the black-topped ware of the SudaneseNile Valley dating to approximately 1500 BC (Fattovich 1978; 1980; 1988;1990). (3) Fattovich also subscribes to the presence of south Arabian The term South Arabian covers South Semitic languages spoken on the southern Arabian peninsula, i.e. those not found in Africa: Old South Arabian, a group of extinct Western South Semitic languages Modern South Arabian or Eastern South Semitic. culturalinfluence among Ona peoples. He links undated un��dat��ed?adj.1. Not marked with or showing a date: an undated letter; an undated portrait.2. petroglyphs at sitesaround Asmara to figures in Arabian rock art that date between the 3rdand 1st millennia BC (Fattovich 1983; 1988). (4) He also argues that theTihama coastal culture along the south Arabian littoral littoral/lit��to��ral/ (lit��ah-r'l) pertaining to the shore of a large body of water. littoralpertaining to the shore. of the mid 2ndmillennium BC has ceramic affinities to Kerma and the C-Group in Nubia,stating that `A possibly Arabian influence is noticeable in the OnaGroup-A culture', where the `ceramics reflect a local tradition,partly comparable to the Tihama' (Fattovich 1997a: 481).Fattovich's positions have a larger design: that there was aninterregional in��ter��re��gion��al?adj.Of, involving, or connecting two or more regions: interregional migration; interregional banking.interaction zone that linked the Nile Valley and thelowlands of eastern Sudan and western Eritrea with the highlands ofEritrea and northern Ethiopia as well as with the Tihama culture area.(5) The Ona culture is central to his diffusionist construct because ofits geographical location at the confluence of these cultural areas. Asour archaeological investigations were launched in Eritrea, these werethe interpretations that dominated thinking about the ancient history ofthe Eritrean highlands. Within two years of independence, large housing projects and lightindustrial complexes began to spring up around Asmara. This spurt ofdevelopment intersected with the initiation of an archaeologicalteaching programme during which we conducted several survey coursesoutside of Asmara in areas in which `Ona' sites had been generallybut not precisely documented. We also embarked upon a programme ofregional documentation and analysis of settlement in concert withstrategic test excavations to establish baseline culture histories. Wenow turn to the results of these inquiries over the last three years. Initial archaeological tests Sembel site The Sembel site in 1998 was under threat from rock quarrying,ploughing, rock removal for grave markers, terracing for erosioncontrol Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water erosion in agriculture, land development and construction. This usually involves the creation of some sort of physical barrier, such as vegetation or rock, to absorb some of the energy of the wind or water , and new road development (See FIGURE 2 for location). On this12-13 ha site the area strewn strew?tr.v. strewed, strewn or strewed, strew��ing, strews1. To spread here and there; scatter: strewing flowers down the aisle.2. with dense amounts of building stone andwall features associated with mounds is limited to approximately 4 ha.Recent terracing for tree planting on the northwest side of Sembel hadexposed a large number of small bowls and cups (5-7 cm. diameter atmouth) (Schmidt 1999). (6) [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] The presence of a cup and small bowl in situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. on the surface of oneof the central mounds provided an opportunity to establish astratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat context for this aspect of `Ona' material culture. A2x2-m test was placed where the vessels were located, on a mound withstone walls exposed at its base. This test upon the mound, among otherson the site, provided the most useful information for building a morerefined idea of `Ona' culture. From the surface to the deepestdeposits at -220 cm, this test unit was characterized by a mass of stonerubble from collapsed walls, filling spaces between ancient stone walls. The stone walls exposed in the initial test were made of closelyfitted fieldstones held together with a mud mortar, It appears that thetest was placed in such a manner to intersect a passageway or nichebetween two houses that were joined by a common wall. Ash featureswithin this niche cannot be definitively tied to cooking. Atapproximately 60 cm depth, an extensive ash layer was first observed andeventually documented to as deep as 140 cm, having been piled againstthe northern stone wall exposure. `Bulls' heads' figurines were found throughout thesedeposits, as were small red ware cups, burnished bur��nish?tr.v. bur��nished, bur��nish��ing, bur��nish��es1. To make smooth or glossy by or as if by rubbing; polish.2. To rub with a tool that serves especially to smooth or polish.n. and slipped red ware,and coarse brown ware vessels. Indirect evidence for grain agriculturewas found throughout the deposits in the form of many upper and lowergrindstones. Faunal materials were also plentiful and were found indiscrete clusters often associated with ash, suggesting a discardcontext (Schmidt 1999). In 1999 an advanced archaeological field school was conducted atSembel with the express goal of expanding knowledge about thearchitectural characteristics. These additional excavations yieldedsignificant information on agricultural food processing Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals. The food processing industry utilises these processes. , with therecovery of many upper and lower grindstones. As well, the exposure anddefinition of two in situ hearths provided excellent evidence foradditional paraphernalia used in food preparation. Sembel Kushet Approximately 1 km to the northwest of Sembel is another `Ona'culture site of equally large size, about 12 ha. A central portion ofthe site has mounds and a very dense concentration of architecturalstone. One of the distinctive characteristics of this site is a largezone of ashy ash��y?adj. ash��i��er, ash��i��est1. Of, relating to, or covered with ashes.2. Having the color of ashes; pale.ash soil, approximately 60x80 m, that has been partiallydisturbed by ploughing. One test in this zone showed plentiful remainsof burnished and slipped red ware. Another test located in an area ofdense ceramic scatters to the south of the mounds and ashy zone showedthat many of the ceramics may be redeposited from the higher mounds tothe north. Sembel II On the western margins of the Sembel site we noted another discrete`Ona' period site that was adjacent to another component marked byblack ware ceramics. Regional survey shows that black ware sites arerelatively few in number when compared to Ona sites. A large portion ofthe Sembel II site had been destroyed by rock quarrying, exposing humanburials, hearths and charcoal concentrations. Also present was a holedrilled and ground into the surrounding bedrock, descending into whatappears to be an underground chamber. Two exposed hearths and an exposedwall were tested. The presence of human burials, including a fetusburial in one test, suggest that a cluster of hearths may be associatedwith the underground chamber. Black-ware ceramics were recognized byTringali in other parts of the Asmara plateau, mostly on the far easternside of Asmara (Tringali 1965; Munro-Hay & Tringali 1993). Oneradiocarbon date from a hearth in association with black ware indicatesthat this component dates to approximately the 11th century AD, or thepost Aksumite era, Regional survey Results from the Greater Asmara Regional Archaeological SurveyProject (carried out in 1999-2000) amplify insights concerning thedevelopment of ancient complex society around Asmara. The surveyuniverse was designed to capture a variety of physiographic phys��i��og��ra��phy?n.See physical geography.physi��ogra��pher n. andenvironmental zones and to build upon the survey projects carried outduring earlier University of Asmara field schools. An area of mostlynonurban landscape of 145 sq. km surrounding Asmara was demarcated, witha simple random sample In statistics, a simple random sample is a group of subjects (a sample) chosen from a larger group (a population). Each subject from the population is chosen randomly and entirely by chance, such that each subject has the same probability of being chosen at any stage during the of 15 1-sq. km survey units resulting in a 10.3 %sample of the survey universe (FIGURE 2). Field survey incorporated an intensive surface survey of thesesample units. Walking linear transects, surveyors recorded detailedarchaeological, physiographic and environmental observations. A total of80 archaeological sites were documented in the 15 sq. km sampled (FIGURE2). Average site size of the 80 documented sites is 1.64 ha. Of the 80sites documented, 47 sites are less than I ha, 22 sites are 1-3 ha, 6sites range between 3 and 6 ha, 3 sites are between 6 and 12 ha and 2sites are larger than 12 ha. Most Ona sites are located in upland areasabove or adjacent to ploughed and/or fallow fallowa pale cream, light fawn, or pale yellow coat color in dogs. agricultural fields andsituated within a few hundred metres of seasonal and/ or perennialstreams. Of the 80 Ona sites documented, half have substantial intact moundfeatures composed of architectural rubble and/or architectural featureswithin anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. soil deposits, often exhibiting exposed stonewalls,platforms, terraces, and sometimes cisterns. Mounds range in height fromfewer than 30 cm to over 4 m in elevation. A diverse range of localigneous ig��ne��ous?adj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of fire.2. Geologya. Formed by solidification from a molten state. Used of rocks.b. Of or relating to rock so formed; pyrogenic. and metamorphic rocks were used for building. Mai Hu tsa A site of more than 12 ha located 4 km north of Asmara, Mai Hutsastretches from the edge of Mai Hutsa stream to the top of a 30-m highridge approximately 400 m east of the Asmara-Keren highway. This site,at the time of excavation, was threatened by construction of irrigation irrigation,in agriculture, artificial watering of the land. Although used chiefly in regions with annual rainfall of less than 20 in. (51 cm), it is also used in wetter areas to grow certain crops, e.g., rice. channels and other major agricultural earthmoving. A mound in thesite's centre once rose to 4 m in height. Stone walls were visibleon the surface, with 14 linear patterns clearly visible. Visiblearchitectural features included a small cistern cistern/cis��tern/ (sis��tern) a closed space serving as a reservoir for fluid, e.g., one of the enlarged spaces of the body containing lymph or other fluid. , terraces, andplatforms. A test was placed at the top of the main mound over Verb 1. mound over - form mounds over; "The huts can be mounded over to form shelters"cover - provide with a covering or cause to be covered; "cover her face with a handkerchief"; "cover the child with a blanket"; "cover the grave with flowers"2. anexposed wall feature, an apparent room with adjoining walls that were1.7 m high (FIGURE 3). Foundations made of andesitic rock underlayregularly shaped fieldstones mortared with mud. Of particular interestwas a thick deposit of faunal material, including ovicaprines andcattle, some of which was burned and found in association with lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" tools. Also of note were the presence of three whole and four nearlycomplete vessels of both Ona red ware and coarse brown ware ceramictraditions, apparently propped against one wall; these were found inmid-way in a 230-cm deposit. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Ona Gudo This site was mentioned by Tringali (1965). Oral traditions link itclosely with the adjacent site of Ona Hachel. It lies on a ridge abovethe Mai Bela stream and next to Ona Gudo village. The site is marked bya series of 5 terraces/platforms on which are found much eroding ash andexposed ancient walls. There are large numbers of Bulls' heads andabundant quartz and obsidian lithics on the site surface. One test onthe topmost platform showed a series of ashy deposits filled withartefacts such as slag, textile fragments, stone beads, ceramics andBulls' heads. Two hearths were documented during excavation, onewith similarities to a hearth excavated at the Sembel site. Radiocarbon dates An initial series of five radiocarbon dates were processed in 1999from Sembel. These dates range from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC,indicating that Sembel dates to a period that may overlap with theso-called Ethio-Sabean culture in the highlands of northern Ethiopia andsouthern Eritrea. One Sembel date is an AMS AMS - Andrew Message System determination with a lowstandard deviation that fixes the deepest deposit at the juncture of the9th and 8th centuries BC. The results from Sembel are amplified andaffirmed by three radiocarbon dates from Mai Hutsa and four dates fromOna Gudo (TABLE 1). At both of these sites the basal deposits, ordeepest 10 cm directly above bedrock, date to as early as the late 9thcentury BC, dates that are congruent with the Sembel dates. Dates fromupper deposits, while showing one reversal at Ona Gudo, fit well withthe idea that these Ona sites represent contemporaneous settlements. Faunal assemblage Faunal Assemblage is the archaeological or paleontological term for a group of associated animal fossils found together in a given stratum.The principle of faunal succession is used in biostratigraphy to determine each biostratigraphic unit, or biozone. The most notable characteristic of the fauna excavated in Ona sitesis the dominant presence of domestic animals, mostly cattle andovidcaprines. There is only incidental evidence for wild animals WILD ANIMALS. Animals in a state of nature; animals ferae naturae. Vide Animals; Ferae naturae. -- anunidentified shrew shrew,common name for the small, insectivorous mammals of the family Soricidae, related to the moles. Shrews include the smallest mammals; the smallest shrews are under 2 in. (5.1 cm) long, excluding the tail, and the largest are about 6 in. (15 cm) long. species and a bird, suggesting that the Ona peoplehad made the transition from an economy in which hunting played asignificant role (Shoshani & Boza 1999; Shoshani & Beyin 2000).The assemblage from Sembel, Mai Hutsa and Ona Gudo shows a very lowincidence of butchery cut-marks. Most long bones are broken, sometimesin multiple places -- suggesting extraction of marrow and perhaps meatdivision. There are no pigs, horses or donkeys -- results that mirrorexcavations elsewhere in the Horn where Semitic speaking peoples mayhave resided. There is a decided preference for cattle over sheep and goats, witha ratio of nearly 2:1, favouring cattle (TABLE 2). Although the sampleis too small to comment definitively on herd management, at Sembel ittentatively appears that sub-adult cattle were preferred for meatconsumption. The emerging picture of the pastoral part of thesubsistence economy A subsistence economy is an economy in which a group generally obtains the necessities of life, but do not attempt to accumulate wealth. In such a system, a concept of wealth does not exist, and only minimal surpluses generally are created, therefore there is a reliance on renewal is one in which domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. cattle played adominant role. Bulls' heads Bulls' heads figurines were excavated from all tests atSembel, Sembel Kushet, Mai Hutsa and Ona Gudo. The figurines fromexcavated contexts tend to be predominantly ground stone artefacts, madeof metavolcanic rocks, quartz and various igneous andesitic rocks,chloritic chlo��rite?1?n.A generally green or black secondary mineral, (Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8 schist schist(shĭst), metamorphic rock having a foliated, or plated, structure called schistosity in which the component flaky minerals are visible to the naked eye. and, occasionally, ground ceramic sherds. Foundthroughout the excavations, the Bulls' heads seem to bemanufactured from locally available material, with laterized metamorphicrock sources the easiest to work and the most readily available in theSembel and Sembel Kushet areas. As the name suggests, these objects arelikely symbolic representations of cattle. Several radiocarbon dates areassociated with Bulls' heads, which continue deep into the depositsto at least 700 BC at Sembel and Mai Hutsa, and in the deepest level atOna Gudo. One of our more significant finds at Sembel is a stone Bull'shead that shows a hump between the horns -- dated to approximately 500BC (see FIGURE 4). This appears to depict a humped cattle species,perhaps Bos indicus, which has been indirectly documented in Eritreafrom a bronze figurine from the Aksumite site of Zeban Kutur in theAkele Guzai region, dated to the 2nd century AD (Ricci 1955-58; Drewes1962; Clark 1976; Drewes & Schneider 1976; Fattovich 1977) and byclay figurines of humped cattle found in excavations at Matara andascribed to the Aksumite period (Anfray 1967). The presence of Bosindicus, with its ability to tolerate drier climates, to resist diseaseand parasites (Du Toit 1936; Epstein 1971:198), and its capacity forhigh milk productivity in arid conditions may be linked to thedevelopment of this early agropastoralist culture in the Horn. Thegenetic material of Bos indicus may have tipped the scales towardspermanent settlement in these early Eritrean communities, making itpossible to tolerate a mid-Holocene period of aridity that seems to haveaffected the Horn about 3000 years ago. Bos indicus would have provideda more stable subsistence base, and in combination with grainagriculture may have been a primary catalyst for the rise of largepermanent villages and small towns in the greater Asmara area in theearly 1st millennium BC. The timing of these highland developmentscorresponds to what some scholars believe to be rapid changes in thesize and numbers of pastoralist communities in eastern Africa about 3000BP (Bower 1991; Marshall 1994). We must also keep in mind knowncorridors of interaction between the highlands and the lowland zones ofthe northern Horn. The coming of new breeds of cattle The following is a list of breeds of cattle. Over 800 breeds of cattle are recognized worldwide, adapted both for local climate and for specialized uses. Unless indicated the breed is primarily of the Bos taurus type. and thetranshumant interaction of cattle keepers and agriculturalists of thehighlands are ideas that have been discussed for some time in thearchaeology of the Horn (Clark 1967; 1976; 1980; Brandt 1984; and Brandt& Carder 1987). The greater Asmara area may provide the substantivearchaeological evidence to test the appropriateness of these models ofinteraction. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Ceramics One surprise of these excavations was the relatively highproportion of a coarse brown ware, largely unrecorded by earlierinvestigators. These thick-walled, heavy-duty vessels range in heightfrom 40 to 70 cm, with a mouth diameter of 19-30 cm (see FIGURE 5). Anotable vessel attribute is an extruded coarse temper, often exaggeratedon the interior by significant exfoliation exfoliation/ex��fo��li��a��tion/ (eks-fo?le-a��shun)1. a falling off in scales or layers.2. the removal of scales or flakes from the surface of the skin.3. of the clay. Decoration islimited to several forms of occasional vertical incising located usuallyabove small horizontal lugs. Burning on the bottom and lower sides ofvessels and the extreme exfoliation of clay from the interior of vesselwalls both fit with recent ethnoarchaeological evidence on vessels usedin beer production, suggesting their use for beer brewing (Arthur 2000;2001). [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Red-ware ceramics have commonly characterized the Ona culture. Theypredominate in number of vessels represented as well as numbers ofsherds. Red wares are dominated by red slipping with a burnish applied.Sometimes the top of the pot is black and burnished. These vessels areadorned with finely executed hatched incising (often in triangularfields), punctates and wavy-line comb incising, the latter applied tothe excavated pot from Sembel (see FIGURE 5). The geometric motifs areseen by some to resemble redware red��ware?n.Earthenware made from clay containing a large amount of ferrous oxide, giving it a red color. decoration common to the mid2nd-millennium BC Nile Valley, Kassala in the eastern Sudan, andPre-Aksumite redwares of southern Eritrea and northern Ethiopia(Fattovich 1988; 1997a; 1997b). Our radiometric dating radiometric dating?A method for determining the age of an object based on the concentration of a particular radioactive isotope contained within it. of Ona red wareto the early 1st millennium BC now throws such attributions intoquestion. These vessels have a very fine paste, are finished with a highburnish and sometimes show signs of cooking. There are a few affinitiesbetween the red wares of Yeha and other Pre-Aksumite sites and the Onaceramics. Each tradition includes vessels that have very fine pastes,similar colours including black tops, and slipped and burnishedexteriors. Yet the shapes, sizes and decorative applications on moresoutherly `Pre-Aksumite' vessels are distinct in important waysfrom the Ona wares. (7) This suggests that there are regionalcommonalities in finish and paste that cross cut time and space innortheastern Africa, but these commonalities are so broadly distributedthat they do not constitute sufficient criteria on which to base ideasabout culture contact or interaction. Lithics Flaked stone lithics are characterized by quartz material, whichcomprises more than 75% of the surface and excavated assemblages. Lesseramounts of obsidian, chert chert:see flint. and various other igneous and metamorphicrocks were also utilized. Scrapers, including end-, side-, convergent,circular and thumbnail forms make up the most frequent artefact See artifact. class.Perforators, burins and unifacial points also are abundant inassemblages. In addition, a diverse range of quartz and obsidianmicroliths, including crescents, triangles, outil ecaille and backedmicroblades are important components of the tradition. (8) Conclusions Research in the greater Asmara area shows that we cannotsubstantiate earlier ideas that the highlands of Eritrea owed theircultural genesis and their urban development to interactions with theSouth Arabian Peninsula. Comparison of the latter ceramic traditionswith the ceramics of the Ona culture suggests that the communitiesaround Asmara were endogenous. There is currently no evidence that theOna communities were influenced by Sabean incursion in��cur��sion?n.1. An aggressive entrance into foreign territory; a raid or invasion.2. The act of entering another's territory or domain.3. (s) to the south orthat they were an integral part of the Ethio-Sabean cultural complex. In the area around Aksum in northern Ethiopia it appears that theearliest Pre-Aksumite settlements and ceremonial sites date from the mid1st millennium BC (Fattovich 1988; 1990; Michels 1994; Bard et al.2000). The ancient Ona communities of Greater Asmara show signs ofgrowth toward urbanism in the very early 1st millennium BC. Tentatively,we see a corridor of intensifying urbanism beginning around Asmara inthe early 1st millennium BC, extending to southern Eritrea at Matara andKeskese possibly in the mid 1st millennium BC. The One settlements are sedentary communities practising a mixedeconomy of grain agriculture and pastoralism PastoralismArcadiamountainous region of ancient Greece; legendary for pastoral innocence of people. [Gk. Hist.: NCE, 136; Rom. Lit.: Eclogues; Span. Lit. , a significant developmentthat marked a major transition from pastoral economies that seem to haveprevailed in the highlands of the Horn up to Ona times. These prosperouspeople, living in villages and small towns made of solid stone walls,also made images of cattle that included depictions of Bus indicus.These representations provide us with the first evidence that this hardyspecies was in the Horn by the mid 1st millennium BC, some 700 yearsbefore previously thought. The presence of Bus indicus, with its highermilk production under arid conditions and its natural resistance todisease, may well have been a key element of predictability andstability that allowed settled life to take root in the Asmara area andthat possibly opened the way to urbanism in the Horn. Asmara'sideal location in the highlands with accessibility to good soils andwater as well as its location at a crossroads in regional trade werealso critical factors that favoured the growth of a complex culture herein the early 1st millennium BC.TABLE 1. Calibrated radiocarbon dates for Ona sites.site laboratory excavation conventionaltest number level and radiocarbonexcavation depth ageSembel A Beta 130119 Level 4D, 2440 [+ or -] 70 BP -77 to -86 cmSembel A Beta 130120 Level 5, Lens A, 2460 [+ or -] 60 BP -102 to -107 cmSembel A Beta 130121 Level 7, 2370 [+ or -] 70 BP -124 cmSembel A Beta 130122 Level 8, 2550 [+ or -] 60 BP -135 to -142 cmSembel A Beta 130123 Level 11, 2600 [+ or -] 40 BP AMS -167 cmMai Hutsa Beta 152960 Level 5, 2390 [+ or -] 70 BPMH07-A Feature 2, -40 to -50 cmMai Hutsa Beta 152961 Level 10, 2480 [+ or -] 80 BPMH07-A Feature 4, -90 to -100 cmMai Hutsa Beta 152963 Level 23, 2560 [+ or -] 70 BPMH07-A Feature 7, -220 to -225 cmOna Gudo Beta 152964 Levels 6-8, 2400 [+ or -] 80 BPOG01-A -50 cm to -80 cmOna Gudo Beta 152965 Level 13-15, 2200 [+ or -] 80 BPOG01-A -129 to -140 cmOna Gudo Beta 152966 Level 17, 2360 [+ or -] 80 BPOGO1-A Feature 3, -161 to -170 cmOna Gudo Beta 152967 Level 22, 2480 [+ or -] 60 BPOG01-A Feature 4 -211 to -220 cmSembel II Beta 130124 hearth: associated 1030 [+ or -] 50 BP with Black Waresite laboratory calibrated calibratedtest number 1[sigma] 2[sigma]excavation (68% prob.) (95% prob.)Sembel A Beta 130119 2720-2355 BP 2740-2335 BP 770-405 BC 790-385 BCSembel A Beta 130120 2720-2360 BP 2740-2345 BP 770-410 BC 790-395 BCSembel A Beta 130121 2465 to 2335 BP 2720-2310 BP 515-385 BC 770-360 BCSembel A Beta 130122 2750-2710 BP 2770-2450 BP 800-760 BC 820-500 BCSembel A Beta 130123 2760-2735 BP 2770-2720 BP AMS 810-785 BC 820-770 BCMai Hutsa Beta 152960 2480-2340 BP 2730-2320 BPMH07-A 530-390 BC 780-370 BCMai Hutsa Beta 152961 2740-2360 BP 2760-2340 BPMH07-A 790-410 BC 810-390 BCMai Hutsa Beta 152963 2760-2710 BP 2780-2370 BPMH07-A 800-760 BC 830-420 BCOna Gudo Beta 152964 2500-2340 BP 2740-2320 BPOG01-A 550-390 BC 790-360 BCOna Gudo Beta 152965 2330-2120 BP 2350-1990 BPOG01-A 380-160 SC 400-40 BCOna Gudo Beta 152966 2460-2330 BP 2720-2300 BPOGO1-A 520-380 BC 770-350 BCOna Gudo Beta 152967 2730-2370 BP 2750-2350 BPOG01-A 780-420 BC 800-400 BCSembel II Beta 130124 970-925 BP 855-810 BP AD 980-1025 AD 1095-1140TABLE 2. Minimum Number of Individuals infaunal assemblages.sites Bos, Bos, ovicaprine, ovicaprine, adult sub-adult adult sub-adult to juvenile to juvenileSembel 4 9 4 3Sembel 2 1 1 1 KushetSembel II 2 nil nil nilMai Hutsa 2 1 2 nilOna Gudo 1 nil 1 nil Acknowledgements. We want to thank the University of Asmara for theopportunity to conduct archaeological research in Eritrea. Specialthanks go to President Wolde-Ab Yisak, Dean Asmerom Kidane and Dr YosiefLibseqal for their steadfast support. Our appreciation, too, goes toJeheskel `Hezy' Shoshani and Ana Boza for their help with thefaunal analyses, to Lalemba Tsehaie for artefact illustrations and toAlvaro Higueras and Henry Wright for their insights and assistance. Wealso thank Amanuel Beyin, Asmeret Ghebrezgabiher, Daniel Habtemichael,Dawit Okubatsion, Michael Halle, Werede Okubay, Yoseph Mobae, ZelalemTeka and all of the other students who assisted us. In addition, thanksgo to the National Geographic Society for critical support for theSembel investigations and the US Fulbright Program This article or section needs sourcesorreferences that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article. for underwriting ourstays in Eritrea in 1998, 1999 and 2000. (1) In recent publications, Rodolfo Fattovich contends that the`Pre-Aksumite Culture' period dates from approximately 800/700 BCto 400/300 BC (e.g. Fattovich 1997b; 2000). (2) `Ona' is a term in the Tigrinya language Tigrinya (Ge'ez ትግርኛ tigri??ā, also spelled Tigrigna; less commonly Tigrinian, Tigrinyan) is a Semitic language spoken by the Tigray-Tigrinya people in central Eritrea (there referred to as the "Tigrinya" people), where that describesruins or old homesteads where either ancient populations once resided orwhere now departed families once resided within a village. We use thisterm to refer to ancient sites only. (3) Fattovich (1980: 62; 1990: 10) assigns one Ona site from thegreater Asmara area, Ona Hachel, to the Pre-Aksumite culture periodbased on his study of affinities with Yeha and Matara ceramics of thatera. However, in his 1990 article and in other publications (e.g.Fattovich 1997a and 1997b), Fattovich argues that the Ona sites date tothe 2nd millennium BC. (4) While the Arabian rock art dates between 3000 BC to 500 BC,Fattovich settles on dates of 2nd and 1st millennium BC for Eritreanexamples (1997a). (5) Fattovich (1997a) calls this the Afro-Arabian cultural complex(Tihama cultural complex). (6) These cups are smaller than most Pre-Aksumite and ProtoAksumite cups known from southern Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, whichrange from 7 to 15 cm in diameter, have slightly curving rims, sometimeshave vertical handles, and are mostly undecorated: Bard et al. 1997:395, 397; Fattovich & Bard 1998: 25. A few `miniature' cups atYeha are within the size range of these finds: Fattovich 1980: 24, plate27. (7) The Mai Temenai site in northern Asmara has been dated toapproximately 400 BC. It appears to be a discrete funerary fu��ner��ar��y?adj.Of or suitable for a funeral or burial.[Latin fner context inwhich bronze knives, bracelets and tweezers tweezersAn instrument with pincers used to grasp or extract. See Optical tweezers. as well as finely finishedvases were documented. We cannot assess possible affinities between MaiTemenai ceramic vessels and the ceramics excavated from the tombs ofYeha in Ethiopia until these salvage excavations are published, (8) General elements of these lithics are similar to Pre-Aksumiteand Aksumite lithic materials described from the highlands of thenorthern Horn (Puglisi 1946; Franchini 1953; Tringali 1969; Fattovich1972; Phillipson 1977; Phillipson 2000). References ABUL-HAGGAG, Y. 1961. A contribution to the physiography ofNorthern Ethiopia. London: University of London/Athlone Press. ANFRAY, F. 1963. La premiere campagne de fouilles a Matara, pres deSenafe (Nov. 1959-Jan. 1960), Annales d'Ethiopie 5: 87-112. 1967. Matara, Annales d'Ethiopie 7: 33-88. 1970. Notes archeologiques, Annales d'Ethiopie 8: 31-42. 1974. Deux rilles axoumites: Adulis et Matara, in Atti IV CongressoInternationale di Studi Etiopici -- Roma 1972: 745-65. Rome: AccademiaNazionale del Lincei. ANFRAY, F. & G. ANNEQUIN. 1965. Matara, deuxieme, troisieme etquatrieme campagnes de fouilles, Annales d'Ethiopie 6: 49-86. ARTHUR, J. 2000. Ceramic ethnoarchaeology Ethnoarchaeology is the ethnographic study of peoples for archaeological reasons, usually focusing on the material remains of a society, rather than its culture. Ethnoarchaeology aids archaeologists in reconstructing ancient lifeways by studying the material and non-material among the Game ofsouthwestern Ethiopia. Ph.D dissertation, University of Florida University of Florida is the third-largest university in the United States, with 50,912 students (as of Fall 2006) and has the eighth-largest budget (nearly $1.9 billion per year). UF is home to 16 colleges and more than 150 research centers and institutes. . 2001. Reading pots: an ethnoarchaeological use-alteration analysisof pottery. Poster presented at the 66th annual meeting of the Societyfor American Archaeology The Society for American Archaeology (SAA) is the largest organization of professional archaeologists of the Americas in the world. The Society was founded in 1934 and today has over 7000 members. , New Orleans, April 18-22. BARD, K., M. COLTORTI, M. DIBLASI, F. DRAMIS & R. FATTOVICH.2000. The environmental history of Tigray [northern Ethiopia) in theMiddle and Late Holocene: a preliminary outline, African ArchaeologicalReview 17(2): 65-86. BARD, K., R. FATTOVICH, A. MANZO & C. PERLINGIER1. 1997.Archaeological investigations at Bieta Giyorgis (Aksum), Ethiopia:1993-1995 Field Seasons, Journal of Field Archaeology 24: 387-403. BOWER, J. 1991. The pastoral Neolithic of East Africa Journal ofWorld Prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to 5: 49-82. BRANDT, S. 1984. New perspectives on the origins of food productionin Ethiopia, in J.D. Clark & S. Brandt (ed.), From hunters tofarmers: the causes and consequences of food production in Africa:173-90. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press "UC Press" redirects here, but this is also an abbreviation for University of Chicago PressUniversity of California Press, also known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. . BRANDT, S. & N. CARDER. 1987. Pastoral rock art in the Horn ofAfrica: making sense of udder chaos, World Archaeology 19(2): 194-213. CLARK, J.D. 1967. The problem of Neolithic culture in sub-SaharanAfrica, in W.W. Bishop & J.D. Clark (ed.), Background to evolutionin Africa: 601-27. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including . 1976. The domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. process in sub-Saharan Africa with specialreference to Ethiopia, in Origine de l'elevuge et de ladomestication: 56-115. Nice: Union International des SciencesPrehistoriques et Protohistoriques. 1980. The origins of domestication in Ethiopia, in R.E. Leakey& B.A. Ogot (ed.), Proceedings of the Eighth Panafrican Congress ofPrehistory and Quaternary quaternary/qua��ter��nary/ (kwah��ter-nar?e)1. fourth in order.2. containing four elements or groups.qua��ter��nar��yadj.1. Consisting of four; in fours. Studies: 268-70. Nairobi: The InternationalLouis Leakey Memorial Institute for African Prehistory. CURTIS, M. & Y. LIBSEKAL. 1999. Archaeological survey in theAdi Qeyeh area, Eritrea, Nyame Akuma 51: 25-35. DREWES, A.J. 1962. Inscriptions de l'Ethiopie Antique. Leiden:E.J. Brill. DREWES, A.J. & R. SCHNEIDER. 1976. Origine et development del'ecriture ethiopienne jusqua' a l'epoque desinscriptions royales d'Axoum, Annales d'Ethiopie 10: 95-107. DU TOIT, P.J. 1936. Bovine tuberculosis, Quarterly Bulletin of theHealth Organisation, League of Nations, V. 1. EPSTEIN, H. 1971. The origin of the domestic animals of Africa 1.New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of (NY): Africana Publishing Corporation. FATTOVICH, R. 1972. Sondaggi stratigrafici, Yeha 1971, Annalesd'Ethiopie 9: 65-84. 1977. Some data for the study of the cultural history in ancientnorthern Ethiopia, Nyume Akuma 10: 6-18. 1978 Traces of a possible African component in the pre-AksumiteCulture of Northern Ethiopia, Abbey 9: 25-30. 1980. Materiali per lo studio della ceramica pre-Aksumita Etiopica,Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Nepali 40(4).Supplemento 25. 1983. I `rilievi' rupestri di Daaro Caulos presso Asmara(Etiopia), Annali dell'Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli43: 241-7. 1988. Remarks on the late prehistory and early history of northernEthiopia, in T. Beyene (ed.), Proceedings of the Eighth InternationalConference of Ethiopian Studies -- Addis Ababa 1984: 85-104. AddisAbaba: Institute of Ethiopian Studies. 1990. Remarks on the pre-Aksumite period in northern Ethiopia,Journal of Ethiopian Studies 23: 1-33. 1997a. The Near East and Eastern Africa: their interaction, inVogel (ed.): 479-84. 1997b. Northeastern African States, in Vogel (ed.): 484-9. 2000. Aksum and the Habashat: state and ethnicity in ancientnorthern Ethiopia and Eritrea. Boston (MA): Boston University AfricanStudies Center. Working Papers in African Studies 228. FATTOVICH, R. & K. BARD. 1998. The archaeological expedition inEthiopia (Aksum) of the Istituto Universitario Orientale and BostonUniversity (Documentary Exhibition). Naples: Istituto UniversitarioOriental& FRANCHINI, V. 1953. Stazioni litiche in Eritrea, Bollettino(Asmara) 1: 25-30. MARSHALL, F. 1994. Archaeological perspectives on East Africanpastoralism, in E. Fratkin, K. Galvin & E. Roth (ed.), Africanpastoralist systems: an integrated approach: 17-43. Boulder (CO): LynneRienner Publishers, Inc. MICHELS, J.W. 1994. Regional political organization in theAxum-Yeha area during the Pre-Axumite and Axumite eras, Etudesethiopiennes 1: 61-80. Paris: Societe francaise pour les etudesethiopiennes. MUNRO-HAY, S. & G. TRINGALI. 1993. The Ona sites of Asmara andHamasien, Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 35: 135-70. PHILLIPSON, D.W. 1977. The excavation of Gobedra rockshelter, Axum,Azania 12: 53-82. PHILLIPSON, L. 2000. Aksumite lithic industries, AfricanArchaeological Review 17(2): 49-63. PUGLISI, S.M. 1946. Industria litica di Aksum nel TigraiOccidentale, Bivista di Scienze Preistoriche 1: 284-90. RICCI, L. 1955-58. Ritrovamenti archeologici in Eritrea, II,Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 14: 48-68. SCHMIDT, P. 1999. Preliminary report on the results from the 1998training excavations at the Sembel site. Report submitted to theUniversity of Asmara and the National Museum of Eritrea. SCHMIDT, P. & H. WRIGHT. 1995. The potential of heritageresources in Eritrea. Report submitted to the National Museum ofEritrea. SHOSHANI, J. & A. BEYIN. 2000. Report on faunal remains from1999-2000 excavations at Mai Amber, Mai Hutsa, and Ona Gudoarchaeological sites, Eritrea. Report on file in the National Museum ofEritrea. SHOSHANI, J. & M. BOZA. 1999. Final Report on the faunalanalysis of zoo-archaeological material from the Sembel site, and SembelQushet site, Asmara, Eritrea. Report on file in the National Museum ofEritrea. TRINGALI, G. 1965. Cenni sulle `Ona' di Asmara e dintorni,Annales d'Ethiopie 6: 143-52. 1967. Necropoli di Curbacaiehat (Asmara), Journal of EthiopianStudies 5(1): 109. 1969. Varieth di asce litiche in `ouna' dell'altopianoeritreo, Journal of Ethiopian Studies 7: 119. 1973-77. Necropoli di Cascasse e oggetii sudarabici (?) dallaregione di Asmara (Eritrea), Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 26: 47-98. 1980-81. Note su ritrovamenti archeologici in Eritrea, Rassegna diStudi Etiopici 28: 99-111. 1987. Reperti antichi di scultura minore e di omamentidall'Eritrea e da Aksum, Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 31: 213-18. VOGEL, J.O. (ed.). 1997. Encyclopedia of Precolonial pre��co��lo��ni��alor pre-co��lo��ni��al ?adj.Of, relating to, or being the period of time before colonization of a region or territory. Africa:archaeology, history, languages, cultures, and environments. WalnutCreek (CA): AltaMira Press. WENIG, S. 1997. German fieldwork in Eritrea, Nyame Akuma 48: 20-21. MATTHEW C. CURTIS, Department of Anthropology, University ofFlorida, 1112 Turlington Hall, Gainesville FL 32611, USA.mcurtis@nfl.edu pschmidt@africa.ufl.edu (Schmidt also Department ofArchaeology, University of Asmara, PO Box 1220, Asmara, Eritrea.)