Anthony Richards and the search for Lawai: myths, maps and history.

Anthony Richards and the search for Lawai: myths, maps and history. Introduction I noticed that the bibliography appended to the end of the lateAnthony Richards memorial (Borneo Research Bulletin 33:25-26) omittedhis short paper "Lawai," published in the Brunei MuseumJournal in 1978. (1) Written in an idiosyncratic id��i��o��syn��cra��sy?n. pl. id��i��o��syn��cra��sies1. A structural or behavioral characteristic peculiar to an individual or group.2. A physiological or temperamental peculiarity.3. style, the paperconsidered the various options for the location in what is now WestKalimantan West Kalimantan (Indonesian: Kalimantan Barat often abbreviated to Kalbar) is a province of Indonesia. It is one of four Indonesian provinces in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its capital city Pontianak is located right on the Equator line. of the important trading polity that vanished from thehistorical record during the sixteenth century. It helped launch me intomy own first foray into Verb 1. foray into - enter someone else's territory and take spoils; "The pirates raided the coastal villages regularly"raidencroach upon, intrude on, obtrude upon, invade - to intrude upon, infringe, encroach on, violate; "This new colleague invades my the history of the region (Smith 2000), thoughit started where I ended: with Iban poetry that mentions Lawai. (2)Rereading Richards' account led to my search for more informationand to this Research Note. As well as summarizing Richards' ideasabout the location of Lawai in relation to other opinions, the presentpaper introduces new threads into the skein of mythical and historicalevidence from local, Chinese and Dutch sources. It also illustrates theneed for more research into Dayak mythology in West Kalimantan, and intothe history of the Malay states Malay States:see Malaysia. (3) that were established there. Lawai and the Kapuas One of the chants sung by Saribas Iban bards during the festivalnight of Gawai Burong includes a repeated couplet coupletTwo successive lines of verse. A couplet is marked usually by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, or the inclusion of a self-contained utterance. Couplets may be independent poems, but they usually function as parts of other verse forms, such as the Shakespearean sonnet, : "Kati nuan akibisi nampai igi ranyai/Baka indu Lawai ke bejalai milang lawang?"(Sandin 1977:79-91). The couplet is translated as "Have you,grandfather, seen the seed of the ranyai palm/Like a Malay womancounting the number of doors?" The context is journeys by thesons-in-law of Singalang Burong to seek human heads, for which the seedis a metaphor. The next repeated couplet refers to "indu Oya,"who grates flour from a sago palm sago palmcycasrevoluta. . She can be associated with River Oyaand the Melanau people in Sarawak. Richards was interested in theuncertain location of Lawai, which is mentioned elsewhere in Ibanpoetry, associated with Malays. A more common Iban term for Malays isLaut, but according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Richards, the two terms are sometimes combined,i.e. Laut Lawai: 'Malays of Lawai.' (4) Richards suggestedthat Iban migrations in Borneo probably started during the sixteenthcentury as a result of the spread of Islam This article is about followers of the Islamic faith. For territories under Muslim rule, see Muslim conquests. The spread of Islam began shortly after Muhammad's death in 632. that had become establishedin coastal West Borneo. Relying on Iban traditional accounts, hebelieved that the original Iban homeland in Borneo was in the southwest,in the upper reaches of the Pawan, and that subsequent migrations wereby way of the rivers Pinoh and Melawi, and across the Kapuas northwards north��ward?adv. & adj.Toward, to, or in the north.n.A northern direction, point, or region.north into Sarawak. Some traditional accounts give mythical Iban origins aslying outside Borneo, (5) and then describe migrations within Borneothat mostly start in the Kapuas Basin or nearby areas (Sandin 1967:2-4;see also Sandin 1994:32, 79). At what stage myth turns into history evenwithin Borneo is, of course, uncertain. Richards' belief about theIban homeland in Borneo tallies with one story about a group who movedfrom Ketapang upriver to Kayong, (6) where they split into two,following conversion of some to Islam under the influence of visitingArab traders. This group stayed at Kayong, while the other group starteda series of migrations, first to Ulu Landak, and then to Melawi,Sintang, Sekayam, Sanggau and Semitau, before eventually moving toSarawak (Sandin 1994:90-92). According to the same story, theirrelations and friends who had adopted Islam began to call themselves theMalays of Pontianak, Sampit, Kayong, Sukadana, and Sambas. There is somegeographic uncertainty in this story, not least the fact that the KayongRiver is far enough beyond Ketapang to not be easily accessible toforeign traders--an issue that reappears later. Nevertheless, theaccount gives a suggestion of likely Iban movements in this region thatobviously influenced Richards in his search for Lawai. Richards--like others before him--assessed several possiblelocations for Lawai in West Kalimantan, first taking into accountsimilarities of pronunciation. He suggested that Lawai (lawe inJavanese) might refer to: a) thread, b) a curving feather or fin or acrescent shape, or c) Terminalia trees, but these possibilities seemedunhelpful. (7) Richards moved on to European maps, pointing out that"Lawai" (spelled in various ways, e.g., "Laue,""Lave" or "Lava") appears on maps from themid-sixteenth century to the mid-eighteenth century. It was located inthe sixteenth-century Portuguese maps on a broad estuary estuary(ĕs`chĕr'ē), partially enclosed coastal body of water, having an open connection with the ocean, where freshwater from inland is mixed with saltwater from the sea. thatrepresented the Kapuas. Lawai is also named in early Portuguese accountsof trading centers in Borneo, such as the translation by Cortesao (1944)of the account by Tome Pires in 1521. Nicholl (1990) gives some otherexamples. Lawai was usually named in conjunction with Tanjungpura, whichalso vanished from the records at about the same time (Smith 2000).Broek (1962) discussed much of the evidence from these Portuguese andDutch sources and supported the general belief by Dutch historians thatthe trading port of Lawai was indeed located in or near the Kapuasdelta. The favored location was on the Labai (or Labei), an easterntributary of the Mendawak, which is a southern channel in the delta. TheLabai was the boundary between administrative areas of Meliau andSimpang in early Dutch colonial times. An even smaller tributary, theLawei (sic) is shown just south of the Labei (sic), on a map by Melvillvan Carnbee and Versteeg in their atlas of the Dutch East Indies Dutch East Indies:see Indonesia. (1853-1862). The Lawei does not appear on the large-scale maps A map having a scale of 1:75,000 or larger. See also map. of theregion that first appeared in the late nineteenth century. (8) Richards doubted that Lawai was in the Kapuas delta, "or therealone." He used a statement by Tome Pires (as translated byCortesao 1944:224) that Lawai was "four days' journeybeyond" Tanjungpura to suggest a site on the River Laur (Dutch:"Laoer"). This is a south-flowing tributary of the Pawan thatenters north of the Kayong. He thought that Lawai "may now berepresented by Muara Kayong" (Richards 1978:8). This conclusiontallies well with his preferred Iban homeland. Richards accepted theview of Dutch historians that Tanjungpura was located on the Pawan,probably at the site of a village called Tanjung Pura PURA PACOM Utilization & Redistribution AgencyPURA Public Utility Regulatory Act downriver down��riv��er?adv. & adj.Toward or near the mouth of a river; in the direction of the current: swam downriver; a downriver canoe race.Adv. 1. fromMuara Kayong that first appeared (again with variations in spelling) onnineteenth-century Dutch maps; hence Lawai had to be further up thePawan. In the nineteenth century Muara Kayong and then Tanjung Pura werehomes of the peripatetic heirs of the disestablished sultanate ofSukadana, who then became established as the Sultans of Matan andTanjung Pura (Barth 1896, see also Smith 2000). Brock brock?n. Chiefly BritishA badger.[Middle English brok, from Old English broc, of Celtic origin.] (1962) suggestedthat the nineteenth-century Tanjung Pura could not have been the earliertrading center on the grounds that the village would have been verydifficult of access to the large sea-going trading vessels of the time.The people of Tanjungpura and Lawai themselves had "junks"("Juncos" in Portuguese), which sailed to Malacca and Java(Cortesao 1944:224-25). This issue of remoteness from the sea applieseven more strongly to the Kayong and Laur Rivers, much further upstream.To get round the difficulty, Brock suggested that Sukadana was the latername for the port of Tanjungpura. However, this would place Lawai andTanjungpura very close together as separate trading centers and does notfit well with the Portuguese maps. There is no doubt that Tanjungpura isnowadays often regarded as the forerunner A family of ATM adapters from Marconi (formerly Fore Systems). See Marconi. of Sukadana, but my ownopinion is that it was in southern Borneo in the Barito Basin, and thatBanjarmasin is its successor (Smith 2000). This opinion relies heavilyon the maps and the conclusions of Ras (1968) from the Hikajat Banjar(the dynastic history of Banjarmasin and Kotawaringin). The complicationof Lawai being "beyond" Tanjungpura disappears if thestatement is made from the point of view of trading partners from Javarather than from Malacca, but this is not really germane ger��mane?adj.Being both pertinent and fitting. See Synonyms at relevant.[Middle English germain, having the same parents, closely connected; see german2. to the presentdiscussion. Richards did not pay attention to some intriguing cartographic car��tog��ra��phy?n.The art or technique of making maps or charts.[French cartographie : carte, map (from Old French, from Latin charta, carta, paper made from papyrus evidence for the location of Lawai. This was the visit by "DomManuel de Lima de Lima or d'Lima is a Portuguese surname. It is also a Spanish name meaning 'of Lima'de Lima is either: Ronaldo, Real Madrid and Brazilian footballer Vanderlei de Lima, a Brazilian athlete Augusto de Lima, a Brazilian journalist ," a name written on many sixteenth-centuryPortuguese maps and some early seventeenth-century Dutch ones alongsidea river "Laue" that is clearly the Kapuas (for illustrationssee Broek 1962, Nicholl 1967, Thomaz 1995, and especially Suarez 1999).Unfortunately, this expedition was nowhere mentioned in the contemporaryPortuguese written accounts or in the histories that followed. DomManuel was a prominent Portuguese naval commander of the mid-sixteenthcentury and was involved in several Portuguese expeditions and conquestsin India and neighboring neigh��bor?n.1. One who lives near or next to another.2. A person, place, or thing adjacent to or located near another.3. A fellow human.4. Used as a form of familiar address.v. regions (see Smith 2000, 2001). Richards (1978)also did not use Chinese sources from the thirteenth century to the latesixteenth century that refer to Lawai. The same issue of the BruneiMuseum Journal included a paper that translated part of a list ofcountries and their dependencies in the Chinese Nanhai Zhi, written atthe very beginning of the fourteenth century (Brown 1978). (9) After"Dunyang Foni" (identifiable as Brunei) appears the country of"Danzhongbuluo" (Tanjungpura), with its dependency"Luowei" or (in Cantonese) "Loh-wai"; i.e. Lawai.Most of the other 24 dependencies of Tanjungura are identifiable withvarying degrees of confidence from present-day names of locations inBorneo or nearby. However, the precise location of the trading port ofLawai cannot be deduced from that source or from the mid-fourteenthcentury Javanese Nagarakertagama that also mentions Lawai andTanjungpura (for discussion, see Smith 2000). Nevertheless, the locationof the port of Lawai at some place on or near the Kapuas that wasaccessible by large vessels and by Dom Manuel is Manuel I, 1469–1521, king of PortugalManuel I,1469–1521, king of Portugal (1495–1521), successor of John II. Manuel's reign was most notable for the successful continuation of Portugal's overseas enterprises. confirmed by anotherChinese account. This is the Shun ShunIn Chinese mythology, one of the three legendary emperors, along with Yao and Da Yu, of the golden age of antiquity (c. 23rd century BC), singled out by Confucius as models of integrity and virtue. Feng Xiang Song, which containsmaterial possibly dating from the fifteenth century but also includinglate sixteenth-century and even early seventeenth-century additions(Mills 1979, also comments in his unpublished letters deposited in theNeedham Research Institute The Needham Research Institute or NRI is one of the world's leading centres for the study of the history of East Asian science, technology and medicine. It is part of the University of Cambridge in England. , Cambridge). (10) It gives sailinginstructions SAILING INSTRUCTIONS, mar. law. Written or printed directions, delivered by the commanding officer of a convoy to the several masters of the ships under his care, by which they are enabled to understand and answer his signals, to know the place of rendezvous appointed for the fleet, in for voyages from China to trading ports in Borneo, one ofwhich is "Luowei" ("Lao-wei" according to Mills), ona river of that name. The sailing directions make clear that the Chinesevessels entered one of the mouths of the Kapuas and then went upriver ona southeasterly south��east��er��ly?adj.1. Situated toward the southeast.2. Coming or being from the southeast.south��east course (157 1/2 degrees). Mills (1979) identified theriver entrance as the Kapuas Kecil, but a more southerly channel cannotbe ruled out, given uncertain knowledge of river depths at the time.(11) The upriver direction tallies quite well with the location of theLabai. The original account does not give more information that would bedefinitive: e.g., traveling times or changes of direction, as were givenfor the sea-routes. (12) Yuan Bingling (2000:69) has pointed out thatthe Dayaks of West Borneo are traditionally called by the Chinese there"Lo-a-kia" (Mandarin: Laoazi), and that characters for lao (asin Lawei) are used in Chinese versions of many local place-names,including Landak and Monterado. (13) The Shun Feng Xiang Song gives another route to West Borneo via theKarimata islands The Karimata Islands are a chain of small islands off the west coast of Indonesian Borneo, the largest of which is (Pulau) Karimata, being about 20 km across (east-west), and situated at . that ended at "Zhugedanlan" (Wade-Giles:"Chu-ko-tan-lan"), convincingly identified by Mills (1979) asSukadana. This record, at least, must surely be from the late sixteenthcentury or early seventeenth century. Strong evidence of a closegeographical and historical relationship between Lawai and Sukadanacomes from a much later source, Enthoven's massive account of thegeography of West Borneo (1903). This was not considered by Richards(1978) or Smith (2000). Enthoven gave much historical information gainedmainly from the local ruling families in the major settlements along theKapuas, obtained in large measure during topographical surveys which heled from 1889 to 1895. These rulers were at least nominally Muslim, andtheir genealogies combined mythological myth��o��log��i��cal? also myth��o��log��icadj.1. Of, relating to, or recorded in myths or mythology.2. Fabulous; imaginary.myth and historical elements. Commonthemes that illustrated (or were designed to illustrate) longstandinglegitimacy included ancient links with Majapahit in Java, andintermarriages with Dayak aristocracy. Thus, Malay (or Javanese)colonists were said to have gone from "Labai Lawai"(Soekadana) to Sepauk, on the Kapuas between Sanggau and Sintang(Enthoven 1903:672-73). One of the social classes of Malays in Sanggauwas the orang Sanggau Lawai, direct descendants--according to localtradition--of the ruling family that originated from Sukadana and hadlinks with Majapahit in Java (Enthoven 1903:702-3, 718-22). Travelersfrom "Labai Lawai," again equated with Sukadana by the Dutch,were involved in the foundation of Selimbau and Pijasa, much further upthe Kapuas (Enthoven 1903:136, 158). The Dayak element in the story of Sanggau is that the Muslim politystarted with the marriage of Babai Cinga (Enthoven: "BabaiTjinga"), chief of a Dayak tribe on the Sekayam River, to DaraNanti, granddaughter of Brawidjaja of Sukadana (Enthoven 1903:702-3).According to a Dayak version of the legend published recently on theInternet (Kusasi 2004), Babai Cinga suffered from a serious skin diseasefrom which he had to be cured before he became leader of the village ofTampun Juah, close to the Entabai River. He urinated on a cucumber cucumber,fruit of Cucumis sativus, a species of gourd whose many varieties are descended from a plant native to Asia and Africa. Cucumber is classified in the division Magnoliophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Violales, family Curcurbitaceae. andthrew it into the river, and it floated down to the mouth of theSekayam. There it was retrieved by Dara Nanti, who showed it to herfather, King of Labai Lawai, which lay down the Sekayam River on thecoast of West Borneo (Kerajaan Labai Lawai terletak di hilir sungaiSekayam di pantal barat Borneo; Kusasi 2004:6). According to thisaccount, Labai Lawai was part of the kingdom of Srivijaya in Sumatra.Dara Nanti's father told her that before she ate the cucumber ithad to be clean. Having assured him that it was, she ate it, whereupon where��up��on?conj.1. On which.2. In close consequence of which: The instructor entered the room, whereupon we got to our feet. she became pregnant and gave birth to a son. After five years Dara Nantiand her son went on a search for the father. She found her way to TampunJuah and Babai Cinga was identified as the father. Dara Nanti askedBabai Cinga to marry her. He agreed but, embarrassed by his skindisease, swam behind the boat to Labai Lawai, whereupon the"seluang" fish ate the scabs and pus pus,thick white or yellowish fluid that forms in areas of infection such as wounds and abscesses. It is constituted of decomposed body tissue, bacteria (or other micro-organisms that cause the infection), and certain white blood cells. , and his skin was healed.The moral of the story as published has a modern ring: even though theDayak lived in the middle of a forest, they communicated with others wholived downriver or on the coast: they were not isolated from globalcivilization (Mereka tidak terisolasi dengan kebudayaan global: Kusasi2004:12). This legend resembles other origin myths of states on the Kapuas.One is that of Silat, upriver from Sintang, as recorded by the Dutch inthe late nineteenth century (Anonymous 1952:70). (14) In this version"Babai Bentjingah" was descended from a Majapahit princess andthe Dayak Demung Nutup. Again, he was afflicted af��flict?tr.v. af��flict��ed, af��flict��ing, af��flictsTo inflict grievous physical or mental suffering on.[Middle English afflighten, from afflight, by a terrible skindisease. He met and bathed with Princess Puteri Djungdjung Buih andagain a fish cleaned him and he was cured. Their descendants DESCENDANTS. Those who have issued from an individual, and include his children, grandchildren, and their children to the remotest degree. Ambl. 327 2 Bro. C. C. 30; Id. 230 3 Bro. C. C. 367; 1 Rop. Leg. 115; 2 Bouv. n. 1956. 2. establishedSilat and Sintang. This princess appears in several other Malay originmyths (see Ras 1968, passim PASSIM - A simulation language based on Pascal.["PASSIM: A Discrete-Event Simulation Package for Pascal", D.H Uyeno et al, Simulation 35(6):183-190 (Dec 1980)]. ). The versions summarized above bearsimilarities to the traditional story of Sukadana itself, in which theMajapahit prince Brawidjadja, himself suffering from a skin disease, wascured in the Pawan River by small fish and then met and married PuteriLindung Buih, who had emerged from a large aquatic flower. He settlednear Kayong and then Sukadana, and his descendants established states upthe Kapuas (Veth 1854-1856, Vol. 1:186-89). There is another story related to Labai Lawai in the Dayak oraltraditions concerning Sanggau, Sintang and Kapuas Hulu Kapuas Hulu (Upper Kapuas River) is a regency (kabupaten) of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The region is the home to a diversity of indigenous groups, including the Iban and the Silat. (John Bamba,personal communication). According to this story, when ancestral Dayakswere living in Tampun Juah they used to fight with a ghost that finallywon the battle and turned the Dayak food into excrement excrement/ex��cre��ment/ (eks��kri-mint)1. feces.2. excretion (2).ex��cre��mentn.Waste matter or any excretion cast out of the body, especially feces. . The Dayakstherefore moved from Tampun Juah, but went in different directions,which explains why they now have different languages. This closelyresembles part of an Iban myth recounted by Sandin (1994:79). Accordingto John Bamba's version, one group moved down the Sekayam River andreached the Kapuas. They then moved further down the Kapuas to a placethey called Labai Land, downstream from Tayan. As the name of thegroup's leader was Lawai, they called their new village LabaiLawai. After they had been settled there for some time, the Tanjungpurakingdom that then ruled Sukadana expanded its territory to Tayan, soLabai Lawai came under the rule of Tayan. Later, the Dayaks heard thatthe Dutch East Indies Company (VOC (Vertical Online Community) See vertical portal. ) planned to attack Tayan because itrefused to pay tribute. They fled upriver and eventually split intoSekadau, Ketungau, Kerabat, Benawas River Dayaks, etc. (15) Theintroduction of the Dutch into this story complicates the historicalelement, because Lawai was clearly established much earlier than thearrival of the VOC in Borneo. A possible complication in the naming ofLabai Lawai is that"Labai" (or very similar words) has Muslim associations(Richards 1978). One example in a Dutch report from southern Borneorefers to conversion of disgruntled dis��grun��tle?tr.v. dis��grun��tled, dis��grun��tling, dis��grun��tlesTo make discontented.[dis- + gruntle, to grumble (from Middle English gruntelen; see Dayaks to labei (Anonymous1926:468). (16) Likewise in West Kalimantan lebai for the Malay meanssomeone of religious qualification ("penghulu": John Bamba,personal communication). There is a Dayak story of Lebai Malang('The Unfortunate Lebai') which is quite well-known, as it istaught in school, etc. (John Bamba, personal communication, again almostverbatim ver��ba��tim?adj.Using exactly the same words; corresponding word for word: a verbatim report of the conversation.adv. ). However, this usage does not seem to be associated with LabaiLawai. Whether the origin of the name Labai Lawai is a riverine riv��er��ine?adj.1. Relating to or resembling a river.2. Located on or inhabiting the banks of a river; riparian: "Members of a riverine tribe ... association or otherwise does not affect the conclusion thatRichards' preference for a location on the Laur as the center ofLawai must surely be wrong. The myths of origin, though varying indetail, demonstrate continuity with known history, i.e. identificationof Lawai Labai as a polity in the lower Kapuas that can be linked withthe later sultanate of Sukadana. Nevertheless, he had picked on aninteresting area, as the Laur forms part of a network of ancient riverroutes and tracks that connect Sukadana and Simpang with Tayan, Meliau,Sanggau and Sekadau to the north, and Ketapang to the south (Wadley andSmith 2001). Lawai and the Pinoh Lands The objection of remoteness from the sea apparently also applies toRichards' second preference for the location of a town of Lawainear Nanga Pinoh on the River Melawi, or where that river joins theKapuas at Sintang. However, as he suggested, there has certainly beenmore than one place in West Borneo called "Lawai." Richardspaid particular attention to a map by J. van Braam and G. onder deLinden Linden, city, United StatesLinden,city (1990 pop. 36,701), Union co., NE N.J., in the New York metropolitan area; inc. 1925. During the first half of the 20th cent. that was included in one of the volumes written by F. Valentijn(1724-1726) that describe the East Indies East Indies,name formerly used for the Malay Archipelago, but also more restrictively for Indonesia and more widely to include SE Asia. It once referred chiefly to India. . It shows a large inland state("t'Ryk van Lava") with the town "Lava" locatednorth of the equator, on a river "Lava" that flows into the"Lauwe." The whole river system represents a misshapen mis��shape?tr.v. mis��shaped, mis��shaped or mis��shap��en , mis��shap��ing, mis��shapesTo shape badly; deform.mis��shap Kapuassystem. The map was also reproduced, along with a translation of thechapters by Valentijn that describe Borneo by Dovey (1978), in the sameissue of the Brunei Museum Journal that includes Richards' paper.The map closely reflects Valentijn's text. He mentioned"Lava" as one of the inland states near Sukadana (see Dovey1978). Valentijn obtained much of this information from a book oftravels by J. Jansz de Roy (1706), who was shipwrecked off southernBorneo, spent time in Banjarmasin followed by brief visits toKotawaringin and Sukadana, and left on an English ship. The book by deRoy also has a map by Pieter van der Aa ''For the Brabantine jurist, see Petrus van der Aa.Pieter van der Aa (Leiden, 1659 - Leiden, August 1733) was a Dutch publisher best known for preparing maps and atlases. that shows the "LavaemReg," this time south of the equator but without the river or town.Instead, it places the town "Lave" quite near the coast ofsouthwest Borneo, on a short river of that name, with "varscherivier" written alongside. The map by van Braam and onder denLinden merely calls it "Versche Riv," (17) and the most likelycandidate is the Jelai ("Djelai" to the Dutch). Richardsargued that these maps were consistent with a location for his inlandLawai on the Laur, given the uncertainties about inland locations at thetime. They are equally consistent with a state centered in the Melawiarea. Richards bolstered his argument with a reference to the cession The act of relinquishing one's right.A surrender, relinquishment, or assignment of territory by one state or government to another.The territory of a foreign government gained by the transfer of sovereignty. CESSION, contracts. in1816 to the Dutch by the Sultan of Banjarmasin of "all the Dyakprovinces, the district of Mendawei, Sampit, and Kotawaringin with alltheir dependencies together with Sintang, Lawai, and Djelai," etc.(Irwin 1955:44). (18) Banjarmasin's historic claims to Lawai andother areas in southern Kalimantan are set out in the Hikajat Banjar,which can be dated to the beginning of the nineteenth century at thelatest (Ras 1968). This work records times when--according to theauthor(s)--the rulers of states that include Sukadana, Sambas, Lawai (or"Batang Lawai"), Kotawaringin and elsewhere paid allegiance to"Nagara-Dipa," forerunner of Banjarmasin (Ras 1968:326-27) andlater to Banjarmasin itself (Ras 1968:430-31, 440-41). If this historyis at all reliable, the later of these episodes can be dated to thesixteenth century by the mention of conversion of the Banjar court toIslam, usually placed in the middle of that century. However, they arecomplicated by mention of Sukadana, which is not recorded as a powerfulstate until the end of the sixteenth century (see Smith 2000). Neitherthe Hikajat Banjar nor the list in the treaty cited by Irwin (1955) aidin pinpointing Lawai. Richards suggested that the order in the listcould place Lawai between Sintang and the Jelai River. This too would"put Lawai where the Laner, Muara Kayong and the Pawan are; thatis, in the district now called Matan." The same reasoning would, ofcourse, apply to the Melawi area. Nineteenth-century writings by officials of the Dutch colonialgovernment in Batavia make clear the location of this inland Lawai. Itwas the name for what became called the "Pinoh lands," southof the Melawi, later to become a distinct administrative area under theDutch. (19) A summary of unpublished reports in the 1850s by vonGaffron, who traveled extensively in southern Borneo, mentions campaignsbetween Kotawaringin and Matan (the residue of the sultanate ofSukadana) and "Lawai or Pinoh" (Pijnappel 1860:280, fortranslation, see Ras 1968:620). (20) These campaigns were part of widerdisputes between Kotawaringin and Banjarmasin over frontier areas,including Jelai. Barth (1896:45) quotes an extract from the treaty thatdefined the border between the southern part of Matan and"Laway." Enthoven (1903) again gives much relevantinformation. He said that all the inhabitants :This article is about the video game. For Inhabitants of housing, see Residency Inhabitants is an independently developed commercial puzzle game created by S+F Software. DetailsThe game is based loosely on the concepts from SameGame. of the Pinoh territorywere called "Orang Lawai" after a stream (beekje) of that namein the upper reaches of the Pinoh River, south of Nanga Pinoh. Accordingto tradition, old "Madoeng" (Madung) was established at themouth of the Lawai in the seventeenth century (Enthoven 1903:381).Enthoven's account summarizes much information provided by Barth,who travelled into the far reaches of the Pinoh lands in 1894 to settleborder issues, and Barth mentions the earlier reports by von Gaffron.Barth said that Madung was in decline, and that one of its two Malayprinces spent much time hunting rhinoceroses, and gaining income fromhis trophies, presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. rhinoceros horn rhinoceros hornin powdered form, considered powerful fertility agent. [Eastern Culture: Misc.]See : Fertility (Barth 1897:603). Among theroyal regalia of Madung was a small bronze measure "GantangLawai," used when Madung had levied taxes from Dayaks; otherwiseBarth (1897) did not mention Lawai. Madung is quite close to theSchwaner watershed and tributaries of rivers that flow into the sea westof Banjarmasin, and hence is accessible from Kotawaringin andBanjarmasin. According to Barth (1897:626-28) the Malay inhabitants ofthe Pinoh lands originated as settlers from Sintang and Kotawaringin whomarried Dayak women. The Pinoh Dayak communities fell into two groups,the free (Mardaheka) Dayaks who had links with Sintang, and those SerahDayaks who owed allegiance to Kotawaringin. As the influence of thelatter polity in the Pinoh lands declined, that of Sintang grew, but thelocal rulers, at least nominally Muslim, enjoyed a good deal ofindependence before the Dutch took control at the end of the nineteenthcentury. In addition to the possible Dayak-Malay associations with theorigins of Sintang that were recorded in the nineteenth century (e.g.,by Enthoven 1903, passim), Sellato (1986:55) noted that the MelahuiDayaks, located in Nanga Serawai District southeast of Sintang, have aclaim to the origins of the sultanate. The identification of"Lawai" as a name for the Pinoh lands accounts satisfactorilyfor the inland state shown on the eighteenth-century maps. Also, thereis a possible explanation for the location of "Lave" on the"Versche Rivier" south of the Schwaner ranges if it is amisunderstood reference to the beginning of a route that led via theSchwaner ranges to the Pinoh lands. This information may have originatedfrom Banjarmasin or Kotawaringin, possibly from de Roy. The Pinoh landsclearly had good trading connections along the Kapuas with southernBorneo and also the north. Joseph Burn, who lived in Pontianak for a fewyears until 1811 or 1812, described the Malay states along the Kapuas ina letter to Stamford Raffles “Raffles” redirects here. For other uses, see Raffles (disambiguation).Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles (July 6, 1781 – July 5, 1826) was the founder of the city of Singapore (now the Republic of Singapore), and is one of the most famous Britons who . He said that Sintang took little notice ofPontianak and traded with Banjarmasin and Brunei (Burn 1811:130-34, forsummary see Smith 2004). Two American missionaries who visited the areain 1840 (Anonymous 1856) (21) commented that the most common route fromSintang to Banjarmasin was via the rivers Melawi, Pinoh and (near byover the watershed) Kotawaringin. This was the route taken in reverse byvon Gaffron in December 1846-January 1847, a year earlier than the muchbetter-known crossing across Borneo from south to west by Schwaner(Posewitz 1892:32-34). Von Gaffron's reports of this expeditionhave never been published, though they were used by Barth and Enthoven,and may still exist in the Dutch colonial archives. Recent studies of the Pinoh lands are notably lacking, comparedwith the Melawi downstream. The latter area has had distinctiveagricultural practices at least since direct Dutch administration beganin the 1890s, with extensive cattle-raising both by Malay settlers andDayaks, as in areas of southern Borneo, though at the time the Dayaksretained their traditional agricultural practices, including padicultivation and collection of forest products, as recorded by Enthoven(1903:434-38, see also Brookfield et al. 1995:187-90, 200-4). The ethnicgroups in the Melawi area are very diverse, as shown by language studies(Sellato 1986, Collins 2001), and the same must apply to the Pinohlands. As elsewhere in Borneo, the prevalent nomenclature nomenclature/no��men��cla��ture/ (no��men-kla?cher) a classified system of names, as of anatomical structures, organisms, etc.binomial nomenclature of"Dayak" and "Malay" introduced in colonial timesdoes not reflect reality in respect to distinct ethnicity and socialidentities, especially taking into account recent conversions (i.e. afew generations ago) of Dayaks to Islam and, more recently, toChristianity. The many migrations of Dayak groups across the Schwanerranges that continued well into the nineteenth century greatlycomplicate any attempt to chronicle individual Dayak areas in theregion. However, the Ot Danum and associated groups still live both westand east of the Schwaner ranges (see Sellato 1986); presumably also afactor in past claims of suzerainty su��ze��rain��ty?n. pl. su��ze��rain��tiesThe power or domain of a suzerain.Noun 1. suzerainty - the position or authority of a suzerain; "under the suzerainty of... made by the rulers of Banjarmasinand Kotawaringin that were in large measure based on taxing the Dayakcommunities. Again according to Collins (2001), Nanga Pinoh, the presentdistrict capital located where the Pinoh joins the Melawi, has beenMuslim "for centuries"; it would be interesting to know howmany. Clearly there is no reason to doubt that there was a substantialinland polity of Lawai from the eighteenth century, if not earlier, eventhough the location of a town of that name is not resolved by thehistorical sources reviewed here. Sintang is an obvious candidate forthe historical center on the Kapuas that is shown as "Lava" onthe eighteenth-century Dutch maps. The Missing Dimension: Archaeology Richards (1978) commented that archaeological investigations forLawai and Tanjungpura would be unwise without local research, because ofchanges in river courses and sites of present villages or towns.Scarcity of archaeological evidence is a major problem in linking"myth, history and cultural identity" in Borneo (Sellato1993). However, even a few archaeological findings can help, as shown bySellato (1993) for a site at Nanga Balang (Putussibau District), on theupper reaches of the Kapuas. There seems to be no archaeologicalevidence for a port of Lawai along the Labai. However, Hindu andBuddhist artifacts artifactssee specimen artifacts. have been found scattered throughout the inland areasof Kalimantan, as have Chinese artifacts--some old and some less so (forsummaries see Sellato 1993, Mckinnon 1994). Strong evidence for apre-Islamic "Hinduized" center at or close to Sanggau comesfrom the Sanskrit inscriptions nearby on the Sekayam, as well as Hindustatues (a Nandi bull and Ganesha) and other artifacts. These werewell-known to the Dutch from the 1820s onwards (Enthoven 1903:703,Rouffaer 1909). A brief English-language account is given by Nevius andYoungblood (Anonymous 1856). They also mentioned "slabs withinscriptions and the image of a female sculptured in stone," takenfrom the vicinity of Sanggau a few years prior to their visit (i.e. inthe 1830s) and lost in a shipwreck shipwreck,complete or partial destruction of a vessel as a result of collision, fire, grounding, storm, explosion, or other mishap. In the ancient world sea travel was hazardous, but in modern times the number of shipwrecks due to nonhostile causes has steadily en route to Batavia. Joseph Burn, whoalmost certainly visited Sanggau, said that there were "remains ofa small square-built fort of brick, which the Malay say was built by thePortuguese 140 or 150 years ago" and that the Portuguese had asettlement for many years (Burn 1811:14-15). The Portuguese did not havea settlement there in the 1650s, and a much earlier origin seems verylikely (Smith 2000, 2004). However, this may be an echo of the visit tothe Kapuas by Dom Manuel in the sixteenth century. I have not foundother references to the brick structure at Sanggau, and enquiries amonglocal people might be very helpful, especially given the distinctionaccorded to the orang Sanggau Lawai in the nineteenth century. Rouffaer (1909) was intrigued by the many antiquities along theSekadau River, which flows from the south into the Kapuas to the east ofSanggau. He brought together reports from Dutch travelers and officialsfrom 1779 onwards that included mention of stone statues, gold andsilver ornaments Ornaments are a frequent embellishment to music. Sometimes different symbols represent the same ornament, or vice versa. Different ornament names can refer to an ornament from a specific area or time period. and pottery. In the "kingdom" of Gascaro orCascaro, three days' travel up the Sekadau, there was an inscribed in��scribe?tr.v. in��scribed, in��scrib��ing, in��scribes1. a. To write, print, carve, or engrave (words or letters) on or in a surface.b. To mark or engrave (a surface) with words or letters. black stone or pillar three feet high and three feet broad. According toone account (edited by Radermacher 1780), it had legible leg��i��ble?adj.1. Possible to read or decipher: legible handwriting.2. Plainly discernible; apparent: legible weaknesses in character and disposition. Europeancharacters. Another account (edited by Radermacher 1781) mentioned thatthe stone was carved with seven pyramids, letters and coded numbers("cyffergetallen"). (22) Rouffaer (1909) could not findGascaro or Cascaro or similar names on any of the large-scale maps thathe examined. Nor could he identify Negris, a village said to be fourdays up the Sekadau, where there were partly buried remains of one ortwo large boats of peculiar form, and remains of Hindu temples A Hindu temple is called Mandir or Kovil or Devasthanam or Dega (Nepal Bhasa). It is usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the main deity. , asreported to Batavia by Dutch officials in the 1860s and 1870s. There wasno interest in Batavia. (23) Interestingly, the headwaters of theSekadau and its tributaries lie over the mountains to the east of theheadwaters of the Labai, and the whole region is connected by trackways.As regards the archaeology of the Pinoh lands, Barth (1897:587)mentioned a bronze statue of Buddha found at Nanga Sajan on the Pinoh,and also said that Tobias had earlier mentioned statues of Vishnu andShiva Shivaor Siva(shē`və), one of the greatest gods of Hinduism, also called Mahadeva. The "horned god" and phallic worship of the Indus valley civilization may have been a prototype of Shiva worship or Shaivism. found nearby. Further afield, remains of brick and stone structures near Negarain South Kalimantan South Kalimantan (Indonesian: Kalimantan Selatan often abbreviated to Kalsel) is a province of Indonesia. It is one of four Indonesian provinces in Kalimantan - the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. The provincial capital is Banjarmasin. that were being plundered plun��der?v. plun��dered, plun��der��ing, plun��dersv.tr.1. To rob of goods by force, especially in time of war; pillage: plunder a village.2. by local inhabitants weredescribed by official visitors in the 1820s and 1830s (translations byRas 1968:625-26). They are evidence for a link with the later sultanateof Banjannasin, as recorded in the Hikajat Banjar. Carl Lumholtz, whotraveled in the area in 1916, was told of similar structures atTapinbini in the Kotawaringin District (Lumholtz 1920:289). Tapinbini isabout 100 km. from the coast in the southern Schwaner foothills, and onthe Lamandau, a tributary of the Kotawaringin River. The origin of theLamandau is in West Kalimantan, close to that of the (north-flowing)Pinoh. Tapinbini is therefore associated with the trading route by waterand land between Sintang and southern Borneo. (24) These examplesdemonstrate the existence of the long-standing trade networks but giveno clues about the nature and size of pre-Islamic regional polities.Nevertheless, they show that it is unwise to focus on coastal ornear-coastal areas for locations of substantial pre-Islamic centers(assuming that brick or stone structures indicate a substantial center).This is especially so when silting of rivers and seaward land formationare borne in mind. Posewitz (1892:258) gives examples of land formationin Sarawak and southern Borneo at 50 meters per annum Per annumYearly. , commenting thatthe spread of new land, especially in river estuaries, has been hastenedby deposition of riverine mud resulting from inland gold-mining.Likewise, in relation to possible locations for Tanjungpura in theBarito region, Ras (1968:192-97) cites evidence of coastal movements upto 50 to 100 meters per annum in estuarine es��tu��a��rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary.2. Geology Formed or deposited in an estuary.Adj. 1. estuarine - of or relating to or found in estuariesestuarial locations in Sumatra and Javaover the last four centuries or so. It remains possible that Sanggau wasthe port of "downriver" Lawai at some time, especially bearingin mind the considerable width of the Kapuas even today. There must bemore relevant antiquarian an��ti��quar��i��an?n.One who studies, collects, or deals in antiquities.adj.1. Of or relating to antiquarians or to the study or collecting of antiquities.2. Dealing in or having to do with old or rare books. and archaeological information in unpublishedreports in Dutch colonial times by local officials who had interest inthe history of what is now Kalimantan, and in Indonesian reports sinceindependence. A detailed review by a specialist with appropriatelinguistic expertise would be very useful. Conclusions "Lawai" in Iban poetry clearly has a basis in an actualpolity and there is no reason to doubt Malay (Muslim) associations. WhenI raised this latter point at the talk at the Sixth Biennial biennial,plant requiring two years to complete its life cycle, as distinguished from an annual or a perennial. In the first year a biennial usually produces a rosette of leaves (e.g., the cabbage) and a fleshy root, which acts as a food reserve over the winter. BorneoResearch Council Conference, Kuching, that was published as Smith(2000), several members of the audience with Dayak connections confirmedthe Malay context. (However, another said privately that he did notagree that this was certain in all cases.) Why the Ibans should linkLawai and the Malays is not at all clear, given that the history ofLawai dates back long before Islam reached Borneo. It may be that thisis a memory of conversion of some Dayaks to Islam, as recounted bySandin (1994:90-92), though he did not refer to Lawai. Despite thisuncertainty, it seems likely that, by analogy with the Oya woman, Lawaiin the Gawai Burong chant does not refer to Lawai in the Pinoh lands butto the earlier polity closer to the sea, i.e. to "LabaiLawai." There are probably more references to Lawai and relevantlocalities in Dayak poetry or legends from West Kalimantan, thoughrelating myth to history is never easy. The double name "LabaiLawai" is certainly unusual. Whatever its origin, it may have beenused in West Borneo to distinguish that polity from Lawai in the Pinohlands. The link (if any) between Lawai near the coast, and Lawai in thePinoh lands still remains obscure, though separation in time due tomigration resulting from the spread of Islam is still a strongpossibility. Regarding issues of cultural identity in West Borneo (Sellato1993), it seems over-simple to consider foundation of the coastaltrading centers solely in relation to Malay, Javanese and Bugineseimmigrants, as is usual (e.g., Irwin 1955:3, King 1979:29). The emphasisin the local Malay histories on origins associated with the Majapahit orpost-Majapahit period in Java, subsequent conversion to Islam and(especially upriver) intermarriage in��ter��mar��ry?intr.v. in��ter��mar��ried, in��ter��mar��ry��ing, in��ter��mar��ries1. To marry a member of another group.2. To be bound together by the marriages of members.3. with Dayak leaders, does not helpanswer questions about the nature of the centers that were visited bythe earlier Chinese traders. What was the nature of Bornean society thatwas (temporarily) "Hinduized"? Have Dayaks always lived insmall longhouse longhouseTraditional communal dwelling of the Iroquois Indians until the 19th century. The longhouse was a rectangular box built out of poles, with doors at each end and saplings stretched over the top to form the roof, the whole structure being covered with bark. settlements with little higher-level politicalorganization beyond that later imposed by Malay or quasi-Malay rulers?Should their past coastal connections and seagoing sea��go��ing?adj.Made or used for ocean voyages.seagoingAdjectivebuilt for travelling on the seaAdj. 1. activities beignored? In relation to this last issue, Petersen (2000) has studied theboat-building skills and traditions in the Barito Basin, which is nowheavily silted, and cites the opinion of Professor M. Lambut fromLambung Mangkurat University SchoolsThe university has 9 faculties: School of Education School of Law School of Economics School of Social and Political Sciences School of Engineering School of Agriculture School of Forestry School of Fishery School of Medicine (Banjarmasin) that Dayaks in the regionwere once a sea-going people, consistent with the importance of boats intheir religious life (Peterson 2000:135-38). Miksic (1995) commentedthat, in the context of the formation of Southeast Asian civilizationsin general, there is increasing emphasis on indigenous factors, and thatlack of information on local socio-political organizations is a largeimpediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a contract.Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid. in the discussion of what can and cannot be attributed toIndian (and Chinese) contact. This situation certainly applies inBorneo, and especially in Kalimantan, for the period before the adventof Islam. Also, far too little is known about the small Malay statesalong the Kapuas and its tributaries in the period before the end of thenineteenth century (Wadley and Smith 2001, Wadley 2001). AlthoughAnthony Richards' conclusions about the actual location(s) of Lawaiseem to be wrong, his emphasis on the need for additional field researchin West Kalimantan is even more valid today than it was in 1978. I hopethat local researchers will take up this challenge before--given thepace of change--it becomes even more difficult. Acknowledgements I thank John Bamba, Institut Dayakologi, Pontianak, for providinginformation about Labai Lawai from Dayak sources, and Clifford Satherfor helpful comments, especially about Iban matters. I am also verygrateful to John Moffett, Librarian at the Needham Research Institute,Cambridge, for allowing access to Mills's unpublished papers. Last,I acknowledge some financial support from the Australian Academy ofScience The Australian Academy of Science (AAS) was founded in 1954 by Australian Fellows of the Royal Society of London. The first president was Sir Mark Oliphant. The Academy is modeled after the Royal Society and operates under a Royal Charter; as such it is an independent body, but for this study. This was provided unwittingly, for travel toCanberra for meetings that also made possible library research at theAustralian National University Australian National University,located in Canberra and state-sponsored, founded 1946 as Australia's only completely research-oriented university. Originally limited to graduate studies, it expanded in 1960, merging with Canberra University College (est. 1929). and the National Library of Australia The National Library of Australia is located in Canberra, Australia. Established in 1960, the Library grew out of the Federal Parliamentary Library, which was established in 1901. . References Adelaar, K. Alexander 1995 Borneo as a Cross-roads for ComparativeAustronesian Linguistics. In: Peter Bellwood, James J. Fox, and DarrellTryon, eds., The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives.Canberra: Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies Asian studies is a field in cultural studies that is concerned with the Asian peoples, their cultures and languages. Within the Asian sphere, Asian studies combines aspects of sociology, and cultural anthropology to study cultural phenomena in Asian traditional and industrial , The AustralianNational University. Pp. 75-95. Anonymous 1856 Journal of a Tour on the Kapuas. Journal of theIndian Archipelago Archipelago(ärkĭpĕl`əgō)[Ital., from Gr.=chief sea], ancient name of the Aegean Sea, later applied to the numerous islands it contains. The word now designates any cluster of islands. and East Indies (New Series) 1:84-26 (reprinted byKraus, Liechtenstein. 1970). 1926 Serie L: Borneo, No. 46. Dajaks; Maleiers; Grondenrecht(1916-1918). Adatrechtbundels. Bezorgd door de Commissie voor betAdatrecht en Uitgegeven door het KITLV KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology), 26: Maleisch Gebied en Borneo.'s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff Martinus Nijhoff (b. April 20 1894 - d. January 26 1953) was a Dutch poet and essayist. He studied literature in Amsterdam and law in Utrecht. His debut was made in 1916 with his volume De wandelaar ("The wanderer"). . Pp. 465-68. 1952 Serie L: Borneo, No. 77. Gegevens uit Smitau en Boven-Kapoeas(1922). Adatrechtbundels. Bezorgd door de Commissie voor het Adatrechten Uitgegeven door bet KITLV, 44: Borneo. 's-Gravenhage"Martinus Nijhoff. Pp. 47-86. Barth, J. P. J. 1896 Overzicht der Afdeeling Soekadana. Reprint reprintAn individually bound copy of an article in a journal or science communication from Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten enWetenschappen. Batavia: Albrecht; den Haag: M. 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Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti SainsMalaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) (马来西亚理科大学,理大) is a public university with a main campus in Penang, Malaysia. . 1994 Sources of Traditional Iban History Main article: Iban people The history of the Iban is committed to memory and recorded in a system of writing on boards (papan turai) by the initiated shamans (lemambang). , C. Sather, ed. SarawakMuseum The Sarawak Museum is the oldest museum in Borneo. It was established in 1888 and opened in 1891 in a purpose-built building in Kuching, Sarawak. Sponsored by Charles Brooke, the second White Rajah of Sarawak, the establishment of the museum was strongly encouraged by Alfred Russel Journal, Special Monograph No. 7. Sellato, Bernard 1986 An Ethnic Sketch of the Melawi Area WestKalimantan. Borneo Research Bulletin 18:46-58. 1993 Myth, History and Modern Cultural Identity amongHunter-Gatherers: A Borneo Case. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies24:18-43. Smith, F. Andrew 2000 Pre-17th Century States in Borneo:Tanjungpura is Still a Mystery; Lawei Less So. IN: Michael Leigh Michael Leigh is an artist, based in Cheshire, England and working mainly in the area of mail art. As well as working in his own name, he has produced work since 1980 as A1 Waste Paper Co. (ed.),Borneo 2000: Proceedings of the Sixth Biennial Borneo ResearchConference, Politics, History & Development. Kota Samarahan:Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) was officially incorporated on 24 December 1992. UNIMAS is the eighth University, established just after the declaration of Vision 2020. . Pp. 149-78. 2001 Borneo Mysteries: Dom Manuel de Lima and the Disappearance ofLawei. Mercator's World 6(3):40-43. 2004 Captain Burn and Associates: British Intelligence-Gathering,Trade, and Litigation An action brought in court to enforce a particular right. The act or process of bringing a lawsuit in and of itself; a judicial contest; any dispute.When a person begins a civil lawsuit, the person enters into a process called litigation. in Borneo and Beyond During the Early NineteenthCentury. Borneo Research Bulletin 35:48-69. Suarez, Thomas 1999 Early Mapping of Southeast Asia. Singapore:Periplus Editions. Thomaz, Luis Filipe Luis Filipe is a Portuguese given name: Luis Filipe ?ngelo Rodrigues Fernandes, commonly known as Luis Filipe, Portuguese footballer Lu��s Filipe Sanches Cabral, commonly known as Luis Filipe, Portuguese footballer F. R. 1995 The Image of the Archipelago inPortuguese Cartography of the 16th and Early 17th Centuries. Archipe49:79-124. Valentijn, Francois 1724-1726 Oud oud?n.A musical instrument of northern Africa and southwest Asia resembling a lute.[Arabic 'd, wood, stem, lute, oud.] en Nieuw Oost Indian ...Dordrecht: Joannes van Braam and Gerard onder de Linden. Veth, P. J. Borneo's Westerafdeeling. Two Volumes. Zaltbommel:J. Norman. Wadley, Reed L. 2001 Working in the Dutch Colonial Archives: AFollow-up to Knapen (1997). Borneo Research Bulletin 32:236-40. Wadley, Reed L. and F. Andrew Smith Andrew Smith or Andy Smith may refer to: Andrew Smith (zoologist) (1797-1872) , Scottish zoologist Andrew Jackson Smith (1815-1897), American Civil War army general Andrew Jackson Smith (Medal of Honor recipient) (1843-1932), American Civil War soldier 2001 Dayak Kings, MalaySultans, Oral Histories, and Colonial Archives. Borneo ResearchBulletin:32:57-67. Wilkinson, R. J. 1959 A Malay-English Dictionary. Two volumes. NewYork: Macmillan. Xiang, Da 1961 Liang zhong hal dao zhen jing jing(jing) [Chinese] one of the basic substances that according to traditional Chinese medicine pervade the body, usually translated as "essence"; the body reserves or constitutional makeup, replenished by food and rest, that supports . Beijing: Zhonghua shuju. Yuan Bingling 2000 Chinese Democracies: A Study of the Kongsis ofWest Borneo (1776-1884). Leiden: Research School of Asian, African, andAmerindian Studies. F. Andrew Smith School of Earth and Environmental Sciences The University of Adelaide Its main campus is located on the cultural boulevard of North Terrace in the city-centre alongside prominent institutions such as the Art Gallery of South Australia, the South Australian Museum and the State Library of South Australia. Australia e-mail: andrew.smith@adelaide.edu.au (1) The paper, however, was listed later on in the same issue(33:165) as the first item among Anthony Richards' publishedwritings deposited in the UNIMAS UNIMAS Universiti Malaysia Sarawak library. (2) "Lawai": I use this spelling here rather than"Lawei" (see Smith 2000, 2001), because it is the spellingmostly given in the literature of the region cited by Richards. (3) "Malay states": in this context, polities with Muslimrulers and defined primarily not by fixed territorial boundaries but byauthority over mainly Dayak subjects (see King 1979:30)."Kingdoms," often used, seems too grandiose grandiose/gran��di��ose/ (gran��de-os?) in psychiatry, pertaining to exaggerated belief or claims of one's importance or identity, often manifested by delusions of great wealth, power, or fame. a term. (4) Editor's Note Editor's Note (foaled in 1993 in Kentucky) is an American thoroughbred Stallion racehorse. He was sired by 1992 U.S. Champion 2 YO Colt Forty Niner, who in turn was a son of Champion sire Mr. Prospector and out of the mare, Beware Of The Cat.Trained by D. : In the Saribas region, of which Sandin waswriting, Lawai is an old Iban term for 'Malays,' now largelyobsolete. Today, in everyday usage, Malays are referred to as Laut. LikeLaut, the term Lawai thus refers primarily to a people, and not to aplace. However, in the Saribas, Lawai does occasionally occur in olderIban place-names, for example, Sungai Bangkai Lawai ('River ofMalay Corpses'), another name for the Sungai Langit (Sandin1994:165). While it is perfectly possible, as Andrew Smith suggests,that the term Lawai may have originally been a place-name, this is amatter of speculation. The combination Laut Lawai, which so interestedRichards, does, indeed, appear in Iban oral poetry. While certainlytranslatable as 'Malays of Lawai,' literally, Laut Lawai means'Malays Malays,' a pairing of essentially synonymous termsthat is not at all uncommon in Iban oral poetry. Hence, caution shouldbe exercised, I think, in describing "Lawai" as "alocation associated with Malays." The term is certainly associatedwith Malays, but not in a strict sense as a "location." In acontrary way, it is worth noting that in Iban the term Melayu does occuras a place-name, but not, interestingly enough, in reference to Malays,but as the name of an Iban settlement area, both in the Kapuas and alsoacross the border, near Balai Ringin, in Sarawak. More relevant to the author's argument, I think, is LawaiLabai, mentioned later, which, unambiguously, appears in Iban oralpoetry as a place-name. In Iban oral tradition, Lawai Labai isparticularly associated with Keling, leader of the Iban spirit heroes(Orang Panggau), and is sometimes described as the original home of thespirit heroes before their separation from the ancestral Iban. Of laterWest Kalimantan place-names, one which appears in Saribas oral traditionwith, to my mind, surprisingly regularity is Sukadana. Hence, I foundparticularly interesting the author's argument that"LawaiLabai," as an early historical polity, has a probable connectionwith the later sultanate of Sukadana. (5) Linguistic evidence increasingly suggests a likely originwithin Borneo (Adelaar 1995, Collins 2001). Editor's Note: This isalso suggested by Iban myth. While a person reading Richards mightsuppose that, according to Iban mythology, the Iban trace their originsto places outside of Borneo, this is not generally the case. While thereare certainly Iban myths and genealogical ge��ne��al��o��gy?n. pl. ge��ne��al��o��gies1. A record or table of the descent of a person, family, or group from an ancestor or ancestors; a family tree.2. Direct descent from an ancestor; lineage or pedigree. narratives that tell ofputative ancestors who arrive from outside the island, these compriseonly a tiny proportion of the total amount of such materials recorded(see, for example, the genealogical appendices ap��pen��di��ces?n.A plural of appendix. in Sandin 1976 and 1994).Even in very long Saribas Iban genealogies, containing 20 to 30generations of putative ancestors (including, in some instances,supernaturals), events, with rare exception, are set entirely withinwestern Borneo, and for early events, more specifically, the KapuasBasin. For the Saribas, as Sandin has documented, from 13 to 15generations ago, local genealogical traditions deal substantially withmigrations, first from the upper Kapuas region of what is now WestKalimantan, and then, from river to river, within present-day Sarawak.On the basis of these traditions, Sandin (1976) was able to reconstructthe outlines of Iban settlement of western Sarawak in some considerabledetail. Given the role that these traditions play in Iban society, anemphasis on comparatively recent migrations and the opening of tracks ofland that the Iban still occupy is understandable. Exceptions areunusual, and it is probably not unfair to say that the disproportionateattention given to external origins reflects the interests of thoseinterpreting Iban ethno-historical sources, and not the sourcesthemselves. On the other hand, Iban oral narratives are replete re��plete?adj.1. Abundantly supplied; abounding: a stream replete with trout; an apartment replete with Empire furniture.2. Filled to satiation; gorged.3. withevents and places of enormous potential interest to historians andothers, and as the author rightly stresses, there is an urgent need formore research, as the systematic recording of such material has scarcelybegun in West Borneo, despite the inspired efforts of Sandin, Richards,and others. (6) "Kayung" in Sandin (1994). (7) He obtained these meanings from Wilkinson's English-Malaydictionary (1959). Ras (1968:563) gives 'yam' for lawai inNgadju-Dayak. The context is weaving, and this meaning does not seementirely implausible im��plau��si��ble?adj.Difficult to believe; not plausible.im��plausi��bil , as weaving has long been a major home industry inWest Borneo. Richards (1978) gives Manja-lawei as the Malay name formyrobalans MyrobalansThe common name myrobalan or myrobalans refers to several unrelated fruit-bearing plant species: Cherry plum myrobalan plum (Prunus cerasifera) Amla Amalaki, emblic myrobalans, (Emblica officinalis) , used medicinally and for tanning tanning,process by which skins and hides are converted into leather. Vegetable tanning, a method requiring more than a month even with modern machinery and tanning liquors, employs tannin; its use is shown in Egyptian tomb paintings dating from 3000 B.C. . Corner (1952, Vol. 1:102)gives Jelawei and Pelawei as Malay names for two Terminalia species, andalso, like Richards, Ketapang for T. calappa, a coastal tree. Locationsnamed after plants, e.g. Ketapang, are, of course, common in Borneo. (8) A sketch map by Broek (1962) shows a short river"Lawa," another eastern tributary of the Mendawak, to thenorth of the Labai, but this is a mistake. The river is the Dawak asshown on many large-scale maps of the area, along with a village of thesame name. The village is shown on the map by Melvill van Carnbee andVersteeg (1859), though the river is not named. (9) "Nanhai Zhi" is Pinyin; "Nan-hai Chih" inthe Wade-Giles version given by Brown. I have converted the Chineseplace-names to Pinyin except where otherwise stated. Brown also givessome names in Cantonese. (10) In a letter to W. H. Scott (4 April 1983) Mills pointed outthat mention of foreigners Foreignersalienagethe condition of being an alien.androlepsyLaw. the seizure of foreign subjects to enforce a claim for justice or other right against their nation.gypsyologist, gipsyologistRare. (presumably Dutch) at Nagasaki suggested thatthe account was completed by about 1610. The manuscript, in the BodleianLibrary Bodleian Library(bŏd`lēən, bŏdlē`ən), at Oxford Univ. The original library, destroyed in the reign of Edward VI, was replaced in 1602, chiefly through the efforts of Sir Thomas Bodley, who gave it valuable collections of , Oxford, was edited and published in Chinese by Xiang Da (1961). (11) The Kapuas Kecil is the present-day route to Pontianak, which,of course, had not been founded at that time. Early Dutch and Britishmaps name all three main mouths of the Kapuas system as the"Lauwe" (spelled variously). (12) An unpublished translation of the Shun Feng Xiang Song byMills in the Needham Research Institute, Cambridge, on which Mills(1979) was based, shows uncertainty about some locations and terms,e.g., whether the character "geng" ("chiang",according to Mills) was used for "harbor" or"river." This does not affect his conclusion about thelocation of Lawai on the Kapuas. (13) Yuan Bingling comments that the commonly used character laodoes not have a pejorative pejorativeMedtalk Bad…real bad meaning. Chinese dictionaries Chinese dictionaries date back over two millennia to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, which is a significantly longer lexicographical history than any other language. There are hundreds of dictionaries for Chinese, and this article will introduce some of the most important. translate it as'garrulous' or 'voluble.' The term fanzi('barbarian') is said to be used by local Chinese exclusivelyfor the Malays (Yuan Bingling 2000:69)! (14) This account is taken from reports in 1876 and 1888 (footnotein text). (15) This account is taken almost verbatim from information kindlyprovided by John Bamba. (16) Wilkinson (1959) gives "Lebai" in Malay("Labai" in Minangkabau Malay) as religious persons of southIndian descent associated with religion: 'pillars of themosque.' Although Richards (1978) noted the association with Islam,he did not refer to Labai Lawai. (17) Varsche and versche (Dutch) mean 'fresh,' as infresh water. (18) Richards (1978) gives the last three names only. The listgiven here is part of the full list as translated by Irwin. (19) Veth (1854-6, Vol. 1:50) referred to the mention of Lawai("Lewei," obviously a misprint mis��print?tr.v. mis��print��ed, mis��print��ing, mis��printsTo print incorrectly.n.An error in printing. ) in this area in early histories of Borneo, but did notgive details. He noted the Lawai-(Me)lawi association. (20) It is not clear if the words quoted are those of von Gaffronor Pijnappel. (21) They are identifiable from missionary literature as ElbertNevius and William Youngblood. The mission to West Bomeo was an abjectfailure and collapsed by 1849. (22) All possible explanations for the stone or pillar with sevencarved pyramids seem far fetched. However, the seven castles on thePortuguese coat of arms coat of arms:see blazonry and heraldry. coat of armsor shield of armsHeraldic device dating to the 12th century in Europe. It was originally a cloth tunic worn over or in place of armour to establish identity in battle. and flag since the beginning of the sixteenthcentury resemble stepped pyramids to some extent. Although perhaps veryunlikely, the possibility that the stone is the remains of a padraoerected by Dom Manuel de Lima to commemorate his visit cannot bediscounted. These monuments, examples of which still survive from otherlocations visited by the sixteenth-century Portuguese explorers acrossthe world, had crosses at the top that would obviously not have survivedin Borneo, nor would the five small shields in the middle of the coat ofarms that were arranged in a cross-shaped pattern. (23) Like Rouffaer, I can find no places on large-scale maps thatcan be reconciled with Gascaro/Cascaro or Negris. I have not checkedliterature over the last 100 years that might also mention thearchaeological remains or investigations in the Sekadau region. Anotherarchaeological echo comes from Yuan Bingling (2000:66), who quotes aDutch source from 1861 that says that Chinese miners in the Monteradoregion sometimes found (and discarded) ancient ships and porcelain. (24) The Nanhai Zhi gives "Tabuxindi"("Taap-pat-san-tei" in Cantonese) as one of the dependenciesof Tanjungpura (Brown 1978). Though not noted by Brown, this cumbersomename resonates with "Tapinbini." Another unidentified name inthe list is "Zhili" ("Chat-lai" in Cantonese), forwhich "Jelai" comes to mind. Brown (1978) identified"Gumei" ("Koomooi" in Cantonese) as Kumai and"Qidingyin" ("Hat-ting-ngan" in Cantonese) as theriver Katingan, near Sampit.