Video modeling for individuals with autism: a review of model types and effects.

Video modeling for individuals with autism: a review of model types and effects. Abstract Efficacy research on video modeling as an instructional approachfor individuals with autism autism(ô`tĭzəm), developmental disability resulting from a neurological disorder that affects the normal functioning of the brain. It is characterized by the abnormal development of communication skills, social skills, and reasoning. has been found to be a promising area forteachers and researchers. Over the last three decades the literature hasshown successful use of video modeling for teaching a variety of social,academic, and functional skills. The purpose of this literature reviewis to describe one specific aspect of video modeling, namely, to examinevideo modeling studies from the perspective of the impact of the model.To this end studies have been categorized cat��e��go��rize?tr.v. cat��e��go��rized, cat��e��go��riz��ing, cat��e��go��riz��esTo put into a category or categories; classify.cat as models using adults, peers,self, point-of-view, and mixed model approaches. Descriptive summariesand analyses of outcomes are provided for each study. ********** As a group, individuals with autism appear to have strengthsprocessing visual stimuli (Bryan Bryan,city (1990 pop. 55,002), seat of Brazos co., E central Tex.; inc. 1872. Settled in the early 19th cent. in an area of large plantations, Bryan was long a cotton center. & Gast, 2000; Hodgdon, 1995)resulting in many instructional strategies comprised of a heavy emphasison visual cues; for example, PECS, Social Stories, and individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. multimedia activity schedules (Bondy Bondy is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 10.9 km. (6.8 miles) from the center of Paris. NameThe name Bondy was recorded for the first time around AD 600 as Bonitiacum, meaning "estate of Bonitius", a Gallo-Roman landowner. & Frost, 1994; Charlop-Christy,Carpenter, Le, LeBlanc Leblanc is a French surname. It can refer to: CompaniesLeblanc (musical instrument manufacturer), an American musical instrument manufacturer Leblanc (Automobile manufacturer), a Swiss manufacturer of high-performance cars. , & Kellet Kellet may refer to: Kellet Island, Hong Kong Kellet -- autogyro made by the Kellet Aircraft Company , 2002; Gray & Garand, 1993;Kimball, Kinney, Taylor Taylor,city (1990 pop. 70,811), Wayne co., SE Mich., a suburb of Detroit adjacent to Dearborn; founded 1847 as a township, inc. as a city 1968. A small rural village until World War II, it developed significantly in the second half of the 20th cent. , & Stromer, 2003). Instructional modeling,teacher demonstration of expected behaviors or skills, complements thevisual strengths of students with autism. Video modeling is a behavioral technique behavioral techniquePsychiatry Any coping strategy in which Pts are taught to monitor and evaluate their behavior and to modify their reactions to pain that uses videotapesrather than live scenarios for the child to observe, thus allowing thefocus of attention to be concentrated on the stimulus stimulus/stim��u��lus/ (stim��u-lus) pl. stim��uli ? [L.] any agent, act, or influence which produces functional or trophic reaction in a receptor or an irritable tissue. tape. Videomodeling is the procedure of videotaping targeted behaviors in order toexpand the learner's capability to memorize mem��o��rize?tr.v. mem��o��rized, mem��o��riz��ing, mem��o��riz��es1. To commit to memory; learn by heart.2. Computer Science To store in memory: , imitate im��i��tate?tr.v. im��i��tat��ed, im��i��tat��ing, im��i��tates1. To use or follow as a model.2. a. , andgeneralize generalize/gen��er��al��ize/ (-iz)1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic.2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. or adapt targeted behaviors (Hitchcock, Dowrick, &Prater prate?v. prat��ed, prat��ing, pratesv.intr.To talk idly and at length; chatter.v.tr.To utter idly or to little purpose.n. , 2003; Neumann Neu��mann? , John von 1903-1957.Hungarian-born American mathematician who contributed to game theory, quantum mechanics, and functional analysis.Noun 1. , 2004). Videos can be developed to be used instructionally to emphasizesalient social cues, specific social and communicative com��mu��ni��ca��tive?adj.1. Inclined to communicate readily; talkative.2. Of or relating to communication.com��mu behavior, andsequences for task completion (Quill quill:see pen. , 2000). Video modeling isparticulalty effective in ABA programs in teaching behaviors to childrenwith autism (Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2006). Video technology is onefacet facet/fac��et/ (fas��it) a small plane surface on a hard body, as on a bone. fac��etn.1. A small smooth area on a bone or other firm structure.2. of positive behavior supports for individuals with disabilities(Sturmey, 2003). In part, the popularity of video modeling is a result ofteachers' needs to find effective approaches to meet theinstructional characteristics of children with autism. Video modeling isinnately in��nate?adj.1. Possessed at birth; inborn.2. Possessed as an essential characteristic; inherent.3. Of or produced by the mind rather than learned through experience: appealing to instructors who find live modeling to be very timeconsuming. Charlop-Christy, Le, and Freeman Freeman can mean: An individual not tied to land under the Medieval feudal system, unlike a villein or serf A person who has been awarded Freedom of the City or "Freedom of the Company" in a Livery Company The Freeman (2000) found that videomodeling resulted in quicker rates of acquisition and increases ingeneralization gen��er��al��i��za��tionn.1. The act or an instance of generalizing.2. A principle, a statement, or an idea having general application. in comparison to live modeling. Video modeling is alsomore cost efficient and requires less time for training andimplementation than in vivo (live) modeling (Graetz Graetz or Gr?tz is a German surname and place name and can refer to: Heinrich Graetz (1817–1891), the first modern historian to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish people from a Jewish perspective , Mastropieri, &Scruggs, 2006). Once the tape is created, the video can be usedrepeatedly and teachers can assign the instruction to paraprofessionalswith the confidence that the lesson will be delivered in a standardizedmanner (Ayres & Langone, 2005). Additional benefits to videomodeling include an increased ability to gain and hold thestudent's attention as well as the ability to have complete controlover the observed stimuli (Dorwrick, 1991). Video modeling has theoretical roots in the social learning theorywork of Bandura ban`dur´an. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. (1969), which called attention to the ability to learnthrough observation. Observing or watching the consequences of behaviorsexhibited by others can vicariously vi��car��i��ous?adj.1. Felt or undergone as if one were taking part in the experience or feelings of another: read about mountain climbing and experienced vicarious thrills.2. serve to reinforce or punish pun��ish?v. pun��ished, pun��ish��ing, pun��ish��esv.tr.1. To subject to a penalty for an offense, sin, or fault.2. To inflict a penalty for (an offense).3. theviewer. If an individual sees that others in the class receive praisefor starting their work immediately upon request, the individual'slikelihood of starting work immediately upon request increases to thedegree that the praise is a reinforcer reinforcer/re��in��forc��er/ (-in-for��ser) any stimulus that produces reinforcement, a positive r. being a desirable event strengthening responses preceding its occurrence and a negative r. . Principles of social learningtheory contribute to the effectiveness of video modeling (Aspy &Grossman Grossman is a family name of germanic and Jewish Ashkenazi origin (in German Grossmann or Gro?mann). Adam Grossman Albert Grossman Alex Grossman Allan Grossman Austin Grossman Bathsheba Grossman Blake Grossman Burt Grossman , 2007). Most individuals with autism do not engage inincidental Contingent upon or pertaining to something that is more important; that which is necessary, appertaining to, or depending upon another known as the principal.Under Workers' Compensation statutes, a risk is deemed incidental to employment when it is related to whatever a learning to instinctively in��stinc��tive?adj.1. Of, relating to, or prompted by instinct.2. Arising from impulse; spontaneous and unthinking: an instinctive mistrust of bureaucrats. gather information from theirenvironment. Imitation imitation,in music, a device of counterpoint wherein a phrase or motive is employed successively in more than one voice. The imitation may be exact, the same intervals being repeated at the same or different pitches, or it may be free, in which case numerous types is a complex type of social learning which enables newlearners to profit from modeling the behaviors of skilled performers.Imitation requires a rather sophisticated ability to discriminate dis��crim��i��nate?v. dis��crim��i��nat��ed, dis��crim��i��nat��ing, dis��crim��i��natesv.intr.1. a. whoand what to model (Atherton, 2005). Imitation requires a "frame ofreference" or the ability to understand the context and viewpointwhich selectively guides the outcome of the model and the viewer. Manyindividuals with autism need assistance in finding an appropriate frameof reference. For many individuals with ASD ASDabbr.atrial septal defectASDAtrial septal defect, see there , visual supports facilitatelocation of the appropriate frame of reference. Visual supports and visually mediated me��di��ate?v. me��di��at��ed, me��di��at��ing, me��di��atesv.tr.1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: activities are helpfulinstructional strategies for many individuals with ASD (Mirenda &Erickson Erickson can refer to several persons: Arthur Erickson - Canadian architect Dennis Erickson - former coach of the NFL's 49ers and Seahawks Major General Edgar C. , 2000; Prizant, Wetherby, Rubin Ru´binn. 1. A ruby. , Laurent Laurent may refer to: GeographyBas-Saint-Laurent Boulevard Saint-Laurent (Gatineau) Laurent, South Dakota Louis-Saint-Laurent Saint-Laurent (borough) Saint-Laurent—Cartierville Saint-Laurent-de-Condel Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni , & Rydell, 2006)Live modeling (Stahmer, Ingersoll Ingersoll,town (1991 pop. 9,378), S Ont., Canada, on the Thames River, E of London. It has a large dairy-processing industry. Named for Thomas Ingersoll, father of the Canadian heroine Laura Secord, it was the birthplace of Aimée Semple McPherson. , & Carter, 2003) and videomodeling, two forms of visual supports, (Charlop-Christy, Le, &Freeman, 2000; Stahmer et al., 2003) have been used effectively to teachindividuals with autism specifically targeted behaviors as well as todemonstrate targeted behaviors across settings. Due to many positive study outcomes, research and teachinginvolving video modeling as an educational intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. or incombination with other interventions has grown increasingly popular in avariety of areas with individuals falling under the Autism SpectrumDisorder A spectrum disorder in psychiatry is hard to define precisely but is a mental disorder having something to do with a spectrum of subtypes or closely related disorders. The spectrum model is proposed as a more coherent way of understanding psychiatric symptomatology. (ASD) umbrella (Dorwick, 1999; Hitchcock, Dorwick, &Prater, 2003). Although this area of research is expanding, moredetailed studies are needed to analyze specific aspects of video basedinstruction. The findings of this review have important implications foridentifying the most effective model (i.e. self, peers, teacher, adult,or point of view) to be used when creating video models. Purpose of this Literature Review The purpose of this literature review is to analyze video modelingstudies from the perspective of the impact of the type of model. Modelshave incorporated the use of adults, peers, self, and even visualpoint-of-view. * Adult Models: Adults model the targeted behaviors. Adults can befamiliar to the participant including a parent, teacher, or be unknown,for example. * Peer models: Peer models are typically the same age and gender ofthe participant. Peer models can include individuals familiar to theparticipant, such as a sibling sibling/sib��ling/ (sib��ling) any of two or more offspring of the same parents; a brother or sister. sib��lingn. or classmate, or unknown individuals, forexample. * Video Self-modeling (VSM VSM Value Stream Mapping (manufacturing process evaluation technique)VSM Vibrating Sample MagnetometerVSM Vascular Smooth MuscleVSM Visual Studio MagazineVSM Vietnam Service MedalVSM Virtual Shared MemoryVSM Viable Systems Model ) refers to "the observation ofimages of oneself engaged in adaptive behavior Adaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is used to adapt to another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized by a kind of behavior that allows an individual to substitute an unconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive. (Hitchcock, Dowrick,& Prater, 2003, p. 37)." * Point-of-view video models: Point-of-view refers to the visualimage that would be seen if the participant was engaged in the behaviorincluding, images of hands demonstrating a specific skill, for example. * Mixed models: Mixed model approaches may combine any of the abovemodel types. For example, adult video models may be combined with videoself-modeling to provide feedback to the child on their imitation of aspecific skill. To this end, studies in this review have been categorized into oneof five types of models viewed: adults, peers, self, point-of-view, andmixed (more than one type of model). Descriptive summaries and analysesof outcomes are provided for each study. This literature review (a)provides a synthesis of the research literature on applications of fivetypes of models used in video modeling studies and (b) compares theeffectiveness of the five types of video models with a variety ofacademic and social skills for acquisition and generalization ofbehaviors targeted by this intervention. Method Search Process Research articles were located through an electronic search ofcitations, namely, Academic Search Premier (EBSCO EBSCO Elton B. Stephens Company Host). The electronicsearch was limited to peer-reviewed journals and video modeling.Keywords used to search computer databases include video, videomodeling, video model, video-taped modeling, autism, developmentaldisability, developmental disabilities, and ASD. Collected citationswere limited to include participants who have autism. Searches were notlimited by year of citation Citation(foaled 1945) U.S. Thoroughbred racehorse. In four seasons he won 32 of 45 races, finished second in ten, and third in two. He won the 1948 Triple Crown, and became the first horse to win $1 million. He set a world record in 1950 by running a mile in 1:33 3/5. in order to obtain a more comprehensivelist. Additional searches were conducted by reviewing the reference listof each article obtained. This process produced a comprehensive set ofliterature. Criteria for Selecting Studies Articles included in this review had to meet several conditionsincluding: 1) The article was about video modeling; 2) The articleincluded at least one participant who was diagnosed with autism spectrumdisorder; 3) The article was published in a peer-reviewed journal peer-reviewed journalRefereed journal Academia A professional journal that only publishes articles subjected to a rigorous peer validity review process. Cf Throwaway journal. ; 4)The article was a research study. Non-data articles including literaturereviews and commentaries were excluded from this analysis. Thirty-onearticles fit into the criteria for inclusion in analysis. One of the 31articles was excluded based on availability (Buggey, Toombs, Gardener,& Cervetti, 1999). One article described two studies (Taylor, Levin lev��in?n. ArchaicLightning.[Middle English levene, levin; see leuk- in Indo-European roots.] ,& Jasper, 1999) and another article described 3 studies (Buggey,2005), resulting in a review of 34 studies from 30 articles. Articles inthis review ranged in publication date from 1987 to 2006. Results Framework for Reporting Descriptive Variables and Outcome Measures Articles were coded by the type of video model and type of skilladdressed. The 34 studies that met the search criteria fell into fivecategories for type of video model including adult models, peer models,self-models, point-of-view models, and mixed model types. Adult Models Adult modeling has been a popular practice in implementation ofvideo modeling. Nine of the 34 studies reviewed involve adult modeling(See Table 1). One of the nine studies also included a video-feedbackcomponent and was included in analysis for the mixed model type ratherthan adult models (Maione & Mirenda, 2006). Adult models fall intotwo categories, familiar adult models and unfamiliar adult models. Threestudies included familiar adult models. The remaining studies eitherincluded an unfamiliar adult model or did not specify the familiarity ofthe model to the participant. A total of 21 students participated in the eight studies reviewed.The median study size was three with a range of one to five students. Ofthe 21 participants, 17 were boys and 4 were girls. Participants rangedin age from 3 to 13 years. All of the 21 participants were diagnosedwith autism. Four of the studies did not report the criteria used fordiagnosing participants with autism. In the remaining four studies,participants had been diagnosed with autism using the AmericanPsychological Association Criteria (APA (All Points Addressable) Refers to an array (bitmapped screen, matrix, etc.) in which all bits or cells can be individually manipulated. APA - Application Portability Architecture , 1994) using the most recentedition for the year the study was conducted (DSM 1. DSM - Data Structure Manager.An object-oriented language by J.E. Rumbaugh and M.E. Loomis of GE, similar to C++. It is used in implementation of CAD/CAE software. DSM is written in DSM and C and produces C as output. III or DSM IV). Social skills in the form of play skills were described in three ofthe eight studies. Adult video modeling was effective at teaching playskills including verbalizations and motor movement (Charlop-Christy, Le,& Freeman, 2000; D'Ateno, Mangiapanello, & Taylor, 2003;MacDonald Mac��don��ald? , Sir John Alexander 1815-1891.Canadian politician and the first prime minister of the Dominion of Canada (1867-1873 and 1878-1891). He is considered the organizer of the Canadian confederation, established in 1867. , Clark, Garrigan, & Vangala, 2005). In two out of threestudies involving play skills, video modeling alone increased scriptedplay of participants, which did not generalize to novel play.Charlop-Christy et al. (2005) found that adult modeling increased playskills in participants which did generalize to novel situations. Social skills in the form of perspective taking were described intwo of the eight studies. Adult models effectively taught perspectivetaking tasks to students in two-thirds of the participants(Charlop-Christy & Daneshvar, 2003; LeBlanc et al., 2003).Communication in the form of conversation skills were described in twoof the eight studies. Conversation skills were effectively taught andgeneralized gen��er��al��izedadj.1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain.2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized.3. using adult video modeling (Charlop-Christy et al., 2000;Charlop & Milstein Mil��stein, Cesar 1927-2002.Argentinian-born British immunologist. He shared a 1984 Nobel Prize for developing a method of producing monoclonal antibodies. , 1989). Purchasing skills were described in oneof the eight studies. Alacantra (1994) found that adult models incombination with live training effectively taught purchasing skills.Cognitive skills in the form of generative gen��er��a��tiveadj.1. Having the ability to originate, produce, or procreate.2. Of or relating to the production of offspring.generativepertaining to reproduction. spelling skills weredescribed in one of the studies. Adult video models were also effectiveat increasing generative spelling skills (Kinney, Vedora, & Stromer,2003). Studies utilizing adults as models demonstrated effectiveness inenhancing play skills, perspective taking skills, conversation skills,purchasing skills, and generative spelling skills of participants. Peer Models Peer modeling has been a long standing practice in educationalsettings, so the fact that using peers as models has achieved animportant status in video modeling studies comes as no surprise. Ten ofthe 34 studies reviewed involved peer modeling (See Table 2). Includedin this category are three sibling studies (Reagon, Higbee Higbee can refer to: Higbee's, a former Cleveland, Ohio department store purchased by Dillard's Lenah Higbee, naval nurse Mahlon Higbee (1901-1968), Major league Baseball catcher Higbee, Missouri USS Higbee (DD-806), a destroyer , &Endicott, 2006; Taylor, 1999), two of which were described in the samearticle (Taylor, 1999). A total of 25 students participated in the ten studies reviewed.The median study size was three with a range of one to six students. Ofthe 25 participants, 20 were boys and 5 were girls. Participants rangedin age from 3 to 20 years. Seven of the studies included childrenbetween the ages of three to nine years old; one study includedparticipants who ranged in age from 10-16, and the remaining studyincluded participants who were 20 years old. Of the 25 participants, 22fell under the autism spectrum disorder umbrella. Of these 22participants, three studies also reported additional disabilitiesaccompanying the diagnosis of autism including ADHD Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)DefinitionAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder characterized by distractibility, hyperactivity, impulsive behaviors, and the inability to remain focused on tasks or (Dauphin Dauphin, town, CanadaDauphin(dô`fĭn), town (1991 pop. 8,453), SW Man., Canada, on the Vermilion River. It is the retail and distribution center for an agricultural, lumbering, and fishing area. , Kinney,& Stromer, 2004), developmental delay (Haring Haring is an English surname of Austrian origin.Notable individuals with this surname: Keith Haring, American street artist and social activist John Haring, American lawyer and delegate to the Continental Congress , Kennedy, Adams, &Pitts-Conway, 1987) severe mental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. (Haring, Breen, Weiner,Kennedy, & Bednersh, 1995). All of the studies included onlystudents with disabilities. By definition, peers or siblings siblingsnpl (formal) → fr��res et s?urs mpl (de m��mes parents)were used as models. Nine of thestudies reported the models as being "typical peers" and theremaining study did not directly specify the typicality of the model(Dauphin et al. 2004); same gender peers were specifically mentioned intwo studies (Dauphin et al., 2004; Gena, Matropieri, & Scruggs,2005) and same age peers reported in three studies (Gena et al., 2005;Haring et al., 1995; Simpson Simp��son, Sir James Young 1811-1870.British obstetrician and a founder of gynecology. He is also known for introducing the use of chloroform as an anesthetic. , Langone, & Ayres, 2004). Language development as social communication was described in sevenof the ten studies. Peer video modeling was effective at teachinglanguage skills necessary for play skills such as social initiations,following directions, greetings and sharing (Dauphin et al., 2004;Nikopoulous & Keenan, 2004; Reagon et al., 2006; Simpson et al.,2004; Taylor et al., 1999) and social interactions, such as respondingto and giving compliments com��pli��ment?n.1. An expression of praise, admiration, or congratulation.2. A formal act of civility, courtesy, or respect.3. (Lowy Apple et al., 2005). Increasing verbaland facial facial/fa��cial/ (fa��shul) pertaining to or directed toward the face. fa��cialadj.Relating to the face.facial,adj pertaining to the face. affective affective/af��fec��tive/ (ah-fek��tiv) pertaining to affect. af��fec��tiveadj.1. Concerned with or arousing feelings or emotions; emotional.2. expressions were addressed successfully (Gena etal., 2005). Two of the peer modeling videos resulted in increasedability in community based skills focused on purchasing, which alsoincluded social and operational responses in supermarkets (Haring etal., 1995; Haring et al., 1987). Studies utilizing peers as models demonstrated effectiveness inenhancing and generalizing language skills for successful socialsituations including play and independent living skills. Self-Models Self-modeling or video self-modeling (VSM) can take two distinctiveapproaches. The first approach typically requires videotaping theparticipant over time and editing out all examples of inappropriatebehavior while focusing on the targeted behaviors. The second approachpresents an unedited scenario which enables the participant toself-critique his or her behavior. Seven of the 34 studies reviewedinvolved Self-as-models (See Table 3). Included in this category is onestudy which required the participants to critique an unedited version ofthe targeted behaviors (Thiemann & Goldstein Gold��stein, Joseph Leonard Born 1940.American biochemist. He shared a 1985 Nobel Prize for discoveries related to cholesterol metabolism. , 2001). The medianstudy size was three with a range of 1 to 5 participants. All of the 19participants were male. Participants ranged in age from 3 to 15 years.Five of the studies included children between the ages of 3 to 12 yearsold; the remaining study included participants who ranged in age from14-15 years. Of the 19 participants, 15 were diagnosed with autism, 2were diagnosed with Asperger Syndrome Asperger syndromeChildren who have autistic behavior but no problems with language.Mentioned in: Autism , and 2 were diagnosed with apervasive pervasive,adj indicates that a condition permeates the entire development of the individual. developmental delay, or PDD (Buggey, 2005; Lasater &Brady, 1995). All of the studies included only students withdisabilities. One article reviewed reported three separate studies, the third ofwhich described two separate target areas for the video modelingintervention with the same participant (Buggey, 2005). Although thesestudies were described in the same article, they were analyzed an��a��lyze?tr.v. an��a��lyzed, an��a��lyz��ing, an��a��lyz��es1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.3. separately and labeled a-c. Two of the studies using VSM (Buggey b &c, 2005) reported a reduction in tantrums and a reduction in pushingclassmates Classmates can refer to either: Classmates.com, a social networking website. Classmates (film), a 2006 Malayalam blockbuster directed by Lal Jose, starring Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indragith, Sunil, Jagathy, Kavya Madhavan, Balachandra Menon, ... . An increase in positive social interactions and languageproduction was also found in several studies (Buggey a & c, 2005;Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001; Wert & Neisworth, 2003). Trends alsoindicated more language production occurred throughout the school yearthan were found prior to the VSM intervention (Buggey a & c, 2005)and one study revealed a marked increase in spontaneous spontaneous/spon��ta��ne��ous/ (spon-ta��ne-us)1. voluntary; instinctive.2. occurring without external influence.spontaneoushaving no apparent external cause. requesting bythe participants (Wert & Neisworth, 2003). Two studies targeted self-help Redressing or preventing wrongs by one's own action Without Recourse to legal proceedings.Self-help is a term in the law that describes corrective or preventive measures taken by a private citizen. skills through video modeling. Thefirst self-help study utilized the VSM in a traditional manner; theparticipants increased task fluency flu��ent?adj.1. a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages.b. in four specific areas includinglaundry Laundry can be: items of clothing and other textiles that require washing the act of washing clothing and textiles the room of a house in which this is done History of laundryBefore industrialization sorting and assembling lunch for the next day, for example.Participants' interfering behaviors decreased and skillsgeneralized to other settings after VSM training was removed. The otherself-help study (Hagiwara & Myles, 1999) used a multimedia approachto a social story about hand washing This article or section contains .The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to teach subject matter. . In this study the students viewedthemselves on the computer in a social story. No consistent effects orgeneralization occurred. One participant demonstrated generalization inone setting, another participant did not achieve 100% completion butmaintained at 92%, and the third participant indicated partialimprovements in two settings. Implementation of VSM intervention seems to be successful acrossseveral behaviors. Interventions involving VSM show promise forgeneralization to other settings and situations. Point-of-View Models Point-of-view modeling is a relatively new modeling type in thefield of education. The first study using point-of-view was in 2000 andrecorded footage from a subjective viewpoint without the use of a model(Schreibman, Whalen, & Stahmer, 2000). Since this initial study,four additional studies have examined the effectiveness of point-of-viewvideo modeling (See Table 4). These four studies did include models intheir video footage, but from the perspective of the viewer. As such,only hands were visible in the videos. A total of 14 participants were included in the five studiesreviewed. The median study size was three with a range of 2 to 3participants. Of the 14 participants, 11 were males and 3 were females.Participants ranged in age from 1 to 36 years. Four of the studiesincluded children between the ages of 1 to 12 years old; the remainingstudy included adults from 34-36 years old. Of the 14 participants; 10 were diagnosed with autism. Three of thestudies stated the diagnostic criteria for their participants based onthe DSM IV (APA, 1994), which includes 8 of the 10 participantsdiagnosed with autism. The remaining two studies did not specify thediagnostic criteria for the remaining 2 participants labeled withautism. The remaining two studies also reported additional disabilitiesaccompanying the participants' autism including ADHD (Norman,Collins, & Schuster, 2001) as well as moderate levels of mentalretardation (Norman, et. al., 2000; Sigafoos, O'Reilly, &Cannella, 2005). All of the studies included only students withdisabilities. Self-help skills were described in 3 of the 5 studies.Point-of-view modeling was effective at teaching self-help skillsincluding dressing skills (Norman, Collins, & Schuster, 2001),functional living tasks such as pet care and mailing a letter(Shipley-Benamou, Lutzker, & Taubman, 2002), and in making microwavepopcorn (Sigafoos, O'Reilly, & Cannella, 2005) withparticipants diagnosed as having autism. In all three studies, theself-help skills were maintained after removal of the video modelingintervention. Play skills were described in one of the studies reviewed.Point-of-view video modeling alone was effective in teaching motoractions with toys in three out of four behavior sets modeled. The fourthbehavior set was acquired as a result of additional prompting andreinforcement reinforcement/re��in��force��ment/ (-in-fors��ment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or (Hine & Wolery, 2006). Disruptive disruptive/dis��rup��tive/ (-tiv)1. bursting apart; rending.2. causing confusion or disorder. behavior was addressed in the remaining study reviewed.Point-of-view video footage that did not use a model was effective atdecreasing disruptive behavior in participants during transitions(Schreibman, Whalen, & Stahmer, 2000). Studies utilizing point-of-view modeling demonstrate effectivenessin teaching play skills, self-help skills, and in priming students fortransitions for children and adults with autism with and withoutcognitive delays. Mixed Model Types Three of the 34 articles reviewed employed mixed model types. Atotal of 13 participants were included in the three studies reviewed.The median study size was 5 with a range of 1 to 7 participants. Of the13 participants, 12 were boys and 1 was a girl. Participants ranged inage from 3 to 15 years old. One study based diagnostic criteria for their participants based onthe DSM IV (APA, 1994). In this study, 4 participants were diagnosedwith autism and the fifth was diagnosed with PDD-NOS, which falls underthe autism spectrum disorders umbrella (Sherer et al., 2001). Theremaining two studies did not specify the diagnostic criteria for theremaining 8 participants labeled with autism spectrum disorders. Sevenof these participants were labeled as having autism and one was labeledas having Asperger Syndrome. One study also reported additionaldisabilities accompanying the diagnosis of autism spectrum disordersincluding mental retardation, epilepsy epilepsy,a chronic disorder of cerebral function characterized by periodic convulsive seizures. There are many conditions that have epileptic seizures. Sudden discharge of excess electrical activity, which can be either generalized (involving many areas of cells in , and ADHD (Nikopoulos &Keenan, 2003). Mixed model types were utilized for two purposes. The first purposewas to compare model types, namely peer versus self-modeling (Sherer, etal., 2001). The remaining two articles added a self-modeling componentduring the course of their study to provide feedback to a participantwho was not making gains in the target skill with the other types ofvideo modeling used (Nikopoulos, & Keenan, 2003; Maione, &Mirenda, 2006). Conversation skills were addressed in one study, which also wasdesigned to compare peer modeling and self-modeling. Sherer et al.(2001) found variable results between subjects when the targetedbehavior was answering questions in conversation. Two children reactedpositively and attained at��tain?v. at��tained, at��tain��ing, at��tainsv.tr.1. To gain as an objective; achieve: attain a diploma by hard work.2. acquisition rapidly; one child took much longerto acquire the skill; and two other children failed to reach acquisitionin either self-modeling or peer modeling conditions. Although theirresults are variable in regards to teaching conversation skills, theirresults do indicate that peer and self video models are equallyeffective. Nikopoulos and Keenan (2003) and Maione and Mirenda (2006) also hadvariable results within their studies. Nikopoulos and Keenan (2003)addressed social initiation skills within their study using video modelsof a familiar adult, an unfamiliar adult, or a peer. They did not reportany differences in participant results based on the type of video modelused. They did find that 1 out of 7 participants benefited from theintervention across social initiations and appropriate play skills. Fourout of seven participants increased in appropriate play skills whencompeting behaviors decreased. Three out of 7 participants failed tomake progress. Of the 3 participants that failed to make progress, theresearchers attempted a self-modeling procedure with one of theparticipants, which also failed. The remaining 2 participants thatfailed to make progress also had disruptive behaviors which limitedtheir attention to the video model. Maione and Mirenda (2006) had more positive results in their study.They addressed pretend play skills with their participant. They foundthat video adult modeling was effective at increasing scripted andunscripted un��script��ed?adj.Not adhering to or in accordance with a script written beforehand: "his unscripted encounters with the press"Eleanor Clift. verbalizations in two out of the three activities included inthe study. The activity where video modeling alone was not effectiveincluded toys with which the participant generally engaged inperseverative behaviors. Self-modeling was implemented during the courseof the study with this activity to provide feedback to the participanton "good talking" and "not good talking" skills. Incontrast to the Nikopoulos and Keenan (2003) study, this study did findthat video self-modeling to provide feedback was effective at increasingplay skills in the previously unsuccessful activity. Overall, studies demonstrate variability in the effectiveness ofusing mixed models for teaching social initiations, conversation skills,and play skills. Discussion The data found in this literature review strongly suggest thatadults, peers, self, or visual point-of-view as models in video modelingintervention can be used to produce positive results for individualswith autism. Successful interventions with participants with autism havebeen obtained regardless of the type of model used in the video. Thequestion becomes more interesting when effectiveness of model type iscompared within studies. Is one type of model a more powerfulintervention than another? Peer modeling may be more influential thanteacher modeling and self-modeling has produced equivalent or betterresults than peer modeling (Buggey, 1999; McCurdy & Shapiro, 1988).In contrast to these findings, Sherer et al. (2001) found no differencebetween peer and self-models, suggesting that they are equallyeffective. Self and peer models appear to have the most influence on theeffectiveness of video modeling as a strategy used with individuals whofall under the ASD umbrella. The variability within the effectiveness using mixed modelapproaches may provide insight into potential reasons video modeling mayor may not be effective with certain students. Limited success wasdemonstrated in a study where all the participants were reported to haverestricted non-verbal imitations skills (Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2003).Although this study utilized adult, peer, and self-modeling techniqueswith one or more participants, success was limited. Additionally, 2 ofthe 3 participants who made no progress in the target skill also hadlower percentages of attending to the video model when it was presented.The ability or willingness to focus attention on the video or on themodel within the video may need to be evaluated when considering the useof video modeling as an instructional strategy. Future studies focusingon attentional behavior or development of attention to a video model areclearly needed. The length of the video, (e.g., 1 minute versus 15 minutes) thenumber of times the video is viewed, and the setting in which the videomodels are placed are factors that could influence the success of usingvideo modeling. Identification of variables that increase attention tothe video model is another area for research. Across and within the 34 studies, the influence of imitation andattention skills in relationship to type of model emerged as factorsneeding future research in video modeling interventions. Although thesetwo components logically seem like a critical pre-requisite forsuccessful video modeling implementation, the 34 studies reviewed didnot consistently report on whether or not participants had attending andimitation skills prior to the implementation of the study. Inconsistency in��con��sis��ten��cy?n. pl. in��con��sis��ten��cies1. The state or quality of being inconsistent.2. Something inconsistent: many inconsistencies in your proposal. in reporting degree of imitation and attention skills limited theinterpretation of the review. Caution must be taken when interpretingfindings of the studies for trends within and across studies. Factors,not accounted for, may be influencing the outcomes of given possibleinteractions between participants with particular types of models. Withsuch variation across studies, further research should address morecritically, not only a comparison between the effectiveness of the typesof video models used, but also what other factors influence the successor lack of success of a video modeling intervention. The area ofimitation in conjunction with video modeling seems to invite futureresearch studies. The relationship between language and cognition cognitionAct or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. in theindividual's ability to profit from a video model has great promisefor identifying individuals with autism who are likely to profit fromvideo modeling from those who might not be able to use video modelingeffectively. Individuals with autism are noted for perseverating withself-selected behaviors. The type of model, in at least one participant,influenced the absence or presence of perseverative behavior. AlthoughMaione and Mirenda (2006) demonstrated positive results with their mixedmodel approach, their study also adds some insight into some potentiallyconfounding confoundingwhen the effects of two, or more, processes on results cannot be separated, the results are said to be confounded, a cause of bias in disease studies.confounding factor variables for video modeling techniques. Video modelingalone was effective at teaching their participant pretend play skills intwo-thirds of the activities presented. The third activity involved toycars, with which the participant displayed repetitive and perseverativebehaviors. Perseveration perseveration/per��sev��er��a��tion/ (per-sev?er-a��shun) persistent repetition of the same verbal or motor response to varied stimuli; continuance of activity after cessation of the causative stimulus. is a potential confounding variable A confounding variable (also confounding factor, lurking variable, a confound, or confounder) is an extraneous variable in a statistical or research model that should have been experimentally controlled, but was not. that mayinfluence the participant's motivation to imitate the modeled skillwith this toy. The researchers were able to overcome this factor throughthe addition of self-video modeling feedback. Another factor that may influence the outcome of video modelingtechniques is its combination with other techniques. Several studiesused video modeling in combination with computer assisted instruction(Kinney et al., 2003), live training (Haring et al., 1995), visual cues(Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001), and with reinforcement (LeBlanc etal., 2003). Although studies reported that video modeling alone waseffective (D'Ateno et al., 2003; Reagon et al., 2006); this findingbegs the question, to what degree did these other interventionsinfluence the outcomes? To what degree do the models interact with theimpact of the combined approaches? What types of activities are mosteffectively modeled? Do some behaviors need video modeling while othersare not impacted to any significant degree when used in combination withvideo modeling? Another question needing future exploration is the affect of themodel. Video models that show absolute mastery of the task may be lesseffective than models that show how to respond to task related anxiety(Hosford & Mills, 1983). Should models demonstrate how to cope withthe anxiety as they model the targeted behavior, thus combining copingstrategy models in combination with increasing or decreasing the primarytargeted behavior? On the other hand, models that are less than perfectcould have an unanticipated negative effect. Some individuals withautism would imitate the model's unease if presented with asituation depicting anxiety even if the viewers had no emotionalconflict with the task. Some individuals with autism might consider theobservable components of task anxiety as being an integral part of thetask which must be incorporated every time the targeted task ispresented. An additional factor that has the potential to influence theeffectiveness of video modeling is the attributes of the actual video.Charlop-Christy et al. (2000) reported that their video footage recordedmodels demonstrating at an exaggeratedly ex��ag��ger��ate?v. ex��ag��ger��at��ed, ex��ag��ger��at��ing, ex��ag��ger��atesv.tr.1. To represent as greater than is actually the case; overstate: slow pace. LeBlanc et al.(2003) reported that their video footage zoomed in to cue cue,n a stimulus that determines or may prompt the nature of a person's response.cuePsychology Any sensory stimulus that evokes a learned patterned response. See Conditioning. in onpertinent PERTINENT, evidence. Those facts which tend to prove the allegations of the party offering them, are called pertinent; those which have no such tendency are called impertinent, 8 Toull. n. 22. By pertinent is also meant that which belongs. Willes, 319. visual stimuli. Lowy Apple et al. (2005) used voice narrationsto explain the steps the model was demonstrating. Although differentvideo attributes are likely influencing the outcome of the interventionwith participants, the influence of this factor has not beenspecifically addressed in the literature. Future research may want tocompare the influence of video footage attributes, such as zooming in,the pace of the model's demonstration, and narration explaining thesteps. On a final note, finding models can be problematic from a legal andethical perspective. Releases must be obtained and confidentialityensured. Sensitivity to when, where, and how the video is used, isespecially important when the models are peers or self. Technical issuescan also create challenges. Creating a video of unedited VSM is fairlysimple, but developing an edited VSM can be daunting daunt?tr.v. daunt��ed, daunt��ing, dauntsTo abate the courage of; discourage. See Synonyms at dismay.[Middle English daunten, from Old French danter, from Latin for theinexperienced in��ex��pe��ri��ence?n.1. Lack of experience.2. Lack of the knowledge gained from experience.in teacher/technician. The advantage of using peers oradults, of course, is that very little editing needs to take place fromstart of video to finished product; however, video self-modeling mayprovide a more powerful model. The verdict on who is the mostappropriate and meaningful model for which type of behavior is stillout. Conclusions Although the current literature review has contributed to the bodyof knowledge in the area of video modeling with individuals with autism,the effects of models should be further evaluated when combined withother interventions. Future research and teaching practices shouldcontinue to examine the effects of combining methods of instruction andtype of model to increase opportunities for inclusion of individualswith autism at school and within the community. Characteristics andtraits of learners must be further explored with special emphasis on theimpact of attention, cognition and imitation. Based on the literature inthis review, at this time, the models with the most significant impactseem to be self and peers. This finding has great promise for theinclusion of individuals with autism in the community of the schools andsociety at large. References Alcantara, P. R. (1994). Effects of videotape videotapeMagnetic tape used to record visual images and sound, or the recording itself. There are two types of videotape recorders, the transverse (or quad) and the helical. instructional packageon purchasing skills of children with autism. Exceptional Children, 61,40-55. American Psychiatric psy��chi��at��ricadj.Of or relating to psychiatry.psychiatricadjective Pertaining to psychiatry, mental disorders Association. (1994). Diagnostic andstatistical manual of mental disorders Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders/Di��ag��nos��tic and Sta��tis��ti��cal Man��u��al of Men��tal Dis��or��ders/ (DSM) a categorical system of classification of mental disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, that delineates objective (4th ed.). Washington, DC:Author. Aspy, R., & Grossman, B. G. (2007). The Ziggurat ziggurat(zĭg`răt), form of temple common to the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians. The earliest examples date from the end of the 3d millenium B.C. Model: Aframework for designing comprehensive interventions for individuals withhigh-functioning autism and Asperger Syndrome. Shawnee Mission, KS:Autism Asperger Publishing Co. Atherton, J. S. (2005). Learning and Teaching: Imitation and sociallearning. Retrieved May 19, 2007 fromhttp://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/imitation.htm. Ayres, K. M., & Langone, J. (2005). 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Acomparison of video modeling with in vivo modeling for teaching childrenwith autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 537-552. Charlop-Christy, M. H., Carpenter, M., Le, L., LeBlanc, L. A.,& Kellet, K. (2002). Using the Picture Exchange Communication System(PECS) with children with autism: Assessment of PECS use, speech, socialbehavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. , and maladaptive MaladaptiveUnsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation.Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy behavior. 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A misspelling for complement, meaning something which makes the original object complete. giving behaviors of children with high-functioning ASD. Journal ofPositive Behavior Interventions, 7, 33-46. MacDonald, R., Clark, M., Garrigan, E., & Vangala, M. (2005).Using video modeling to teach pretend play to children with autism.Behavioral Interventions, 20, 225-238. Maione, L., & Mirenda, P. (2006). Effects of video modeling andvideo feedback on peer-directed social language skills of a child withautism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 106-118. Mirenda, P., & Erickson, K. (2000). Augmentative aug��men��ta��tive?adj.1. Having the ability or tendency to augment.2. Grammar Indicating an increase in the size, force, or intensity of the meaning of an adjacent word, as up does in eat up.n. communicationand literacy. In. A. M. Wetherby & B. Prizant (Eds.), Autismspectrum disorders: A transactional developmental perspective.Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Neumann, L. 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Its present name was adopted in 1958. Correspondence to Kathleen McCoy, Farmer Education Building, Mailcode: 2011, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281; wizard1@asu.edu.Table 1 Video Modeling using Adult ModelsReference Participants Independent VariableAlcantara, - 2 boys, 1 girl - 10 different videos P. R. (1994) - 8-9 years old modeling how to purchase a - All had ASD grocery item (one video per - 1-4 year age item) equivalence on - Experimenter served as model subtests of the in addition to another Vineland Adaptive unfamiliar adult Behavior ScaleCharlop-Christy, - 3 boys - Videos showing familiar M. H., & - 6-9 years old adults modeling the Daneshvar, S. - All had ASD perspective taking task (2003) - Mental age 2-5 based on Peabody Picture Vocabulary testCharlop-Christy, - 4 boys, 1 girl - Videos of familiar adult M. H., Le, - 7-11 years old models demonstrating the L., & Freeman, - All had ASD target skill at an K. A. (2000) - 4-6 age equivalents exaggeratedly slow pace - Live modeling from familiar adult modelsCharlop, M. - 3 boys - Two familiar adults modeled H., & - 6-7 years old scripted conversations Milstein, J. - All had ASD P. (1989) - IQ 3-6 age equivalentD'Ateno, P., - 1 girl - Video model of scripted Mangiapanello, - 3 years old solitary play sequences K., & Taylor, - Had ASD requiring motor movements and B. A. (2003) - 2 age equivalent on verbalizations using an adult Picture Peabody model Vocabulary test when given at age 2.Kinney, E. M., - 1 girl - 10-15 second video models of Vedora, J., & - 8 years old spelling the target words Stromer, R. - Had ASD - 10-15 second videos (2003) - 2-4 year age demonstrating the target equivalent on words and used as a reward Vineland Adaptive for correct spelling Behavior Scales - Video models were presented through use of the Power Point computer program - Experimenters served as adult modelsLeBlanc, L. A., - 3 boys - Video of adult modeling Coates, A. M., - 7-13 years old correct completion of the Daneshvar, S., - All had ASD task. The video zoomed in on Charlop- - Verbal mental age relevant visual cues and the Christy, M. ranged from 4-15 adult model explained the H., Morris, strategy. -Reinforcement for C., & correct responses and replay Lancaster, B. for incorrect responses. M. (2003)MacDonald, R., - 2 boys - Video of adult acting out Clark, M., - 4 & 7 years old play scripts with toys Garrigan, - Both diagnosed with including verbalizations and E., & Vangala, ASD 14 actions M. (2005) - Both have imitation skillsReference Target Skill/s ResultsAlcantara, - Community based - Video modeling enhanced P. R. (1994) instruction student success in purchasing - Purchasing skills (28/32 steps). Video modeling plus live training was necessary for teaching the 4 steps not learned through video modeling alone.Charlop-Christy, - Social skills - Video modeling effectively M. H., & - perspective taking taught 2/3 participants Daneshvar, S. perspective taking skills. (2003)Charlop-Christy, - Social skills: - Overall, video models M. H., Le, language and play resulted in acquisition more L., & Freeman, than live models. quickly K. A. (2000) - Communication - Video models resulted in skills generalization of the target - Daily living skills skill whereas live models did - Different skills not. and combinations were targeted based on the needs of individual participantsCharlop, M. - Communication - Video modeling resulted in an H., & skills: increase conversational Milstein, J. conversational speech for all participants. P. (1989) speech - The conversational speech skills generalized and were maintained at the 15 month follow up.D'Ateno, P., - Solitary play - Video modeling alone resulted Mangiapanello, skills in an increase in modeled K., & Taylor, verbal and motor play B. A. (2003) responses - Novel play responses did not increaseKinney, E. M., - Cognitive - Video modeling increased Vedora, J., & - Generative spelling generative spelling skills Stromer, R. skills (2003)LeBlanc, L. A., - Social Skills: - Video modeling paired with Coates, A. M., Perspective-taking reinforcement was effective Daneshvar, S., at teaching perspective- Charlop- taking tasks. -2/3 Christy, M. participants generalized the H., Morris, skills. C., & Lancaster, B. M. (2003)MacDonald, R., - Social skills: - Video modeling was effective Clark, M., Pretend Play at increasing scripted play Garrigan, - Skills were not generalized E., & Vangala, to unscripted play M. (2005)Table 2 Video Modeling using a Peer as ModelReference Participants Independent VariableDauphin, M., Kinney, - 1 boy - VM embedded in CAI E. M., & Stromer, R. - 3 years activity schedule (2004) - ASD & ADHD - 8 year old male modeled - 1-2 age equivalent a script and actions for on adaptive each activity behaviorsGena, A., Couloura, - 1 girl and 2 boys - 3 separate videos for S., & Kymissis, E. - 4-6 years each affect in which a (2005) - Met criteria for peer displayed an autism appropriate affective response. The peer was the same sex and age as the target child. A therapist presented questions or statements in the context of the play setting.Haring, T, Breen, C., - 5 boys, 1 girl - 3-5 minute video Weiner, J., Kennedy, - 10-16 years old segments of a non- C., & Bednersh, E. - 3 boys had ASD and disabled same age peer (1995) scored 2-4 age modeling purchasing equivalents on the skills in the stores to Vineland Adaptive be trained. behavior Scales - Live training in stores - remaining 3 had using a system of least SMR and scored 1-2 prompts. age equivalents on the Vinland Adaptive Behavior Scales. - All could follow 2-step directionsHaring, T. G., - 2 boys and 1 girl - 1-3 minute videos of Kennedy, C. H., - 20 years old familiar typical peer Adams, M. J., & - All had autism or models demonstrating Pitts-Conway, V. a developmental a complete purchasing (1987) delay with sequence. characteristics of - Non-disabled peer autism models+ concurrent - 4-5 age training equivalents on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior ScalesLowy Apple, A., - 2 boys - For each participant, Billingsley, F., & - 5 years old 3 videos modeling Schwartz, I. S. - 1 boy was compliment giving (2005) diagnosed with responses and 1 modeling Asperger's compliment giving Syndrome and the initiations using other with autism. typical peer models who - Both boys were had a positive high functioning relationship with the participant. Adult models explained the compliment rules in the videos.Nikopoulos, C. K., & - 3 boys - Video of typical peer Keenan, M. (2004) - 7-9 years old. model initiating play - autism (mild with the experimenter. - moderate range based on the CARS)Reagon, K. A., Higbee, - 1 boy - Sibling modeled and used T. S., & Endicott, - 4 years old as play partner for live K. (2006) - autism (mild- sessions (not state if moderate range there was another model based on the CARS) in video)Simpson, A., Langone, - 4 students - 2 peers of similar age J., & Ayres, K. M. - 2 girls and 2 boys without disabilities (2004) - 5 to 6 years old depicted appropriate use - Mild to moderate of the class of social ASD skills.Taylor, B. A., Levin, - 1 boy - VM (Sibling models); L., & Jasper, S. - 6 years old 3 tapes containing an (1999) - Met criteria for average of 10 scripted autism according comments for the to DSM. participant to imitate. - 1 boy VM (Sibling models); - 9 years old 3 tapes containing - Met criteria for unscripted comments. autism according to DSM.Reference Target Skill/s ResultsDauphin, M., Kinney, - Social skills: - Video models embedded E. M., & Stromer, R. Socio-dramatic in a computer activity (2004) play skills schedule, with teacher prompting, increased scripted play as well as un-modeled play within the same matrices of skills.Gena, A., Couloura, - Increase verbal and - Acquisition of S., & Kymissis, E. facial responses appropriate affective (2005) congruent with responding during the affective second intervention scenarios. phase was achieved in fewer sessions than in in the first intervention phase regardless of in-vivo or video modeling was used. - Generalization of affective behaviors occurred across people and scenarios and over a time span of 3 monthsHaring, T, Breen, C., - Community based - Video modeling combined Weiner, J., Kennedy, instruction: with live training was C., & Bednersh, E. Purchasing skills effective at increasing (1995) purchasing skills. Video then live, live then video, and concurrent video and live training were all effective.Haring, T. G., - Community based - Video modeling combined Kennedy, C. H., instruction: with live training in a Adams, M. J., & Purchasing skills natural environment was Pitts-Conway, V. effective at increasing (1987) purchasing skills, including social and operational responses, which skills generalized to other community stores.Lowy Apple, A., - Social language: - Video modeling alone Billingsley, F., & responding to was effective at Schwartz, I. S. compliments and increasing compliment (2005) compliment giving related skills in participants. - Reinforcement used to maintain the compliment behaviors.Nikopoulos, C. K., & - Social initiations - Enhanced social Keenan, M. (2004) initiations and time in engaged reciprocal playReagon, K. A., Higbee, - Social skills: 4 - VM effective alone (no T. S., & Endicott, targeted play prompt or reinforce) at K. (2006) scenarios increasing scripted and unscripted pretend play.Simpson, A., Langone, - Social Skills - Increased independent J., & Ayres, K. M. (following use of target skills (2004) directions, greetings, & sharing)Taylor, B. A., Levin, - Play comments with - VM effective especially L., & Jasper, S. siblings with scripted but not (1990) unscripted comments. Play comments with Forward chaining video siblings modeling procedure led to an increase in play comments.Table 3 Video Modeling using Self as ModelReference Participants Independent VariableBuggey, T. (2005) a - 2 boys - 3 minute video showing - 9-11 years old participants engaging - 1 with Asperger's in positive and Syndrome/mild typical social autism & 1 with interactions viewed autism prior to start of classesBuggey, T. (2005) b - 2 boys - Scripted videos in - 6-8 years old which the boys would - 1 with Asperger's act out situations Syndrome & 1 with that usually led to autism tantrums & observed prior to start of classesBuggey, T. (2005) c - 1 boy - 2 1/2 minute video of - 5 years old acceptable behavior - PDD - Video depicting the child answering questions from a variety of individualsHagiwara, T., & Myles, B. - 3 boys - Multimedia social S. (1999) - 7-10 years old story - All diagnosed with autismLasater, M. W., & Brady, - 2 boys - A 15 to 30 second M. P. (1995) - 14-15 years old vignette for each of - 1 PDD & 1 with the 4 self help tasks autism asksThiemann, K. S., & - 5 boys - One 10 minute video Goldstein, H. (2001) - 7-12 years old tape for each of 4 - Diagnosed with different social mild to moderate situations to be used autism as supplemental feedback combination with social stories, pictorial and written text cues.Wert, B. Y., & Neisworth, - 4 boys - Each child had A J. T. (2003) - 3-6 years old separate 5 minute - Diagnosed with video tape depicting autism spontaneous requests.Reference Target Skill/s ResultsBuggey, T. (2005) a - Social interactions - Gains in frequency of social interactions in schoolBuggey, T. (2005) b - Reduction of - Rate and duration tantrums of tantrums decreased for both students substantiallyBuggey, T. (2005) c - Pushing classmates - Immediate and dramatic elimination of pushing behavior - Language production - Trend toward more language production occurred throughout the school yearHagiwara, T., & Myles, B. - Participants 1 & 2 - No consistent S. (1999) hand washing effects or - Participant 3 generalizations increasing on task behaviorLasater, M. W., & Brady, - Self help in home - Self-assessment and M. P. (1995) skills needed for self-modeling via independence videotape feedback (combined with behavioral rehearsal) increased task fluency and decreased co- varying task interfering behavior. Lasting effects occurred once the intervention was withdrawn.Thiemann, K. S., & - Increase social - Demonstrated Goldstein, H. (2001) interactions improved and more consistent rates of targeted social behaviors compared to baseline for 4 behaviors in 3 participants, 2 behaviors in 2 participants and 1 behavior in 1 participant.Wert, B. Y., & Neisworth, - Increase spontaneous - A marked increase J. T. (2003) requesting in spontaneous requesting was observed in all the participantsTable 4 Point-of-View Video ModelingReference Participants Independent VariableHine, J. F., & Wolery, M. - 2 girls - Videos of adult hands (2006) - 30-43 months old demonstrating what to - Both diagnosed do with toys with ASD - Both had motor imitation skillsNorman, J. M., Collins, - 2 boys, 1 girl - Video demonstrating B. C., & Schuster, J. - 8-12 years old motor tasks from a W. (2001) - 1 boy had ASD, subjective point-of- the remaining two view. Videos modeled had Down's the tasks, then Syndrome prompted students to - Mild to moderate imitate tasks. The cognitive delays video paused long - All had motor enough for the student imitation skills to imitate the task and then move onto the next step.Schreibman, L., Whalen, - 3 boys - Video footage of C., & Stahmer, A. C. - 3-6 years old transitions from a (2000) - All diagnosed subjective point-of- with ASD view - 1-3 year age equivalent on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior ScalesSigafoos, J., O'Reilly, - 3 men - Video demonstrating M., & Cannella, H. - 34-36 years old the steps to make (2005) - 2 were diagnosed popcorn from a with moderate subjective point-of- mental view. The model retardation, 1 narrated the steps. was diagnosed with autism and moderate mental retardation - IQ 43-50Shipley-Benamou, R. S., - 3 boys - Video demonstrating Lutzker, J. R., & - 5 years old tasks from a Taubman, M. (2002) - All diagnosed subjective point of with ASD view. Adult hands were - All had imitation visible in the model and attending skills.Reference Target Skill/s ResultsHine, J. F., & Wolery, M. - Social skills: Play - Video modeling alone (2006) skills (motor was effective in behavior) teaching motor actions with toys in 3/4 behaviors sets. - Reinforcement and prompting led to acquisition of the 4th behavior set.Norman, J. M., Collins, - Self-help skills - Video modeling was B. C., & Schuster, J. effective at W. (2001) teaching self-help skills. Skill were maintained and generalized to novel instructors and materials.Schreibman, L., Whalen, - Behavior: - Video priming C., & Stahmer, A. C. disruptive techniques were (2000) transition behavior effective at reducing disruptive transition behavior for all participants.Sigafoos, J., O'Reilly, - Self-help skills: - Video was effective M., & Cannella, H. Making popcorn at increasing (2005) popcorn making skills in a 2 out of 3 participants. Popcorn making skills were maintained after the video intervention was withdrawn.Shipley-Benamou, R. S., Teach functional - Effective and Lutzker, J. R., & living skills maintained in Post Taubman, M. (2002) (5 tasks) video phase and 1 month follow-upTable 5 Mixed Video Model TypesReference Participants Independent VariableHine, J. F., & Wolery, M. - 2 girls - Videos of adult hands (2006) - 30-43 months old demonstrating what to - Both diagnosed do with toys with ASD - Both had motor imitation skillsNorman, J. M., Collins, - 2 boys, 1 girl - Video demonstrating B. C., & Schuster, J. - 8-12 years old motor tasks from a W. (2001) - 1 boy had ASD, the subjective point-of- remaining two had view. Videos modeled Down's Syndrome the tasks, then - Mild to moderate prompted students to cognitive delays imitate tasks. The - All had motor video paused long imitation skills enough for the student to imitate the task and then move onto the next step.Schreibman, L., Whalen, - 3 boys - Video footage of C., & Stahmer, A. C. - 3-6 years old transitions from a (2000) - All diagnosed with subjective point-of- ASD view - 1-3 year age equivalent on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior ScalesSigafoos, J., O'Reilly, - 3 men - Video demonstrating M., & Cannella, H. - 34-36 years old the steps to make (2005) - 2 were diagnosed popcorn from a with moderate subjective point-of- mental view. The model retardation 1 was narrated the steps. diagnosed with autism and moderate mental retardation - IQ 43-50Shipley-Benamou, R. S., - 3 boys - Video demonstrating Lutzker, J. R., & - 5 years old tasks from a Taubman, M. (2002) - All diagnosed with subjective point of ASD view. Adult hands - All had imitation were visible in the and attending model skills.Reference Target Skill/s ResultsHine, J. F., & Wolery, M. - Social skills: Play - Video modeling (2006) skills (motor alone was effective behavior) in teaching motor actions with toys in 3/4 behaviors sets. - Reinforcement and prompting led to acquisition of the 4th behavior set.Norman, J. M., Collins, - Self-help skills - Video modeling was B. C., & Schuster, J. effective at W. (2001) teaching self-help skills. Skill were maintained and generalized to novel instructors and materials.Schreibman, L., Whalen, - Behavior: disruptive - Video priming C., & Stahmer, A. C. transition behavior techniques were (2000) effective at reducing disruptive transition behavior for all participants.Sigafoos, J., O'Reilly, - Self-help skills: - Video was effective M., & Cannella, H. Making popcorn at increasing (2005) popcorn making skills in 2 out of 3 participants. Popcorn making skills were maintained after the video intervention was withdrawn.Shipley-Benamou, R. S., - Teach functional - Effective and Lutzker, J. R., & living skills (5 maintained in Post Taubman, M. (2002) tasks) video phase and 1 month follow-up