Toward a Psychosocial and Sociocultural Understanding of Achievement Motivation Among Latino Gang Members in U. S. Schools.

Toward a Psychosocial and Sociocultural Understanding of Achievement Motivation Among Latino Gang Members in U. S. Schools. Gang members tend to drop out of school, commit crimes, and engagein other delinquent behaviors at rates far exceeding those of thegeneral population, and the Latino component of the U.S. gang memberpopulation constitutes up to 40 percent (and even more in some cases) ofthe urban Latino Urban Latino magazine is an American lifestyle publication geared toward Latinos and Latinas 18-34. It was started in 1995 by a member of an art collective and a New York University student. External linkUrban Latino population in some areas. Many in mainstream societycharacterize Latino gang members as psychopathic psy��cho��path��icadj.1. Of, relating to, or characterized by psychopathy.2. Relating to or affected with an antisocial personality disorder that is usually characterized by aggressive, perverted, criminal, or amoral behavior. and sociopathic so��ci��o��path?n.One who is affected with a personality disorder marked by antisocial behavior.so , yetunderstand relatively little about them. This paper examines some of thepsychosocial and sociocultural so��ci��o��cul��tur��al?adj.Of or involving both social and cultural factors.soci��o��cul developmental theories and researchregarding the delinquent achievement orientation of Latino gang membersand their involvement in gangs. This examination demonstrates the thesisthat the Latino gang member orientation and motivation towards theachievement of delinquent behavior, largely perceived as deviant bymainstream society, is actually an alternative response to repellent re��pel��lentadj.Capable of driving off or repelling.n.A substance used to drive off or keep away insects.repellentable to repel or drive off; also, an agent that repels. Refers usually to insect repellent. conditions. This response, often seen as abnormal by society as a whole,is a perception of achievement from within a diverted context that ismisunderstood by many within mainstream society, a perception ofabnormal or delinquent achievement behavior, such as dropping out ofschool or committing crime, as the norm or standard to attain.Ameliorative a��mel��io��rate?tr. & intr.v. a��me��lio��rat��ed, a��me��lio��rat��ing, a��me��lio��ratesTo make or become better; improve. See Synonyms at improve.[Alteration of meliorate. efforts (including prevention, intervention, andsuppression) on the part of society and social institutions(particularly the schools) should be utilized in producing salientsalutary sal��u��tar��yadj.Favorable to health; wholesome.salutaryhealthful.salutaryHealthy, beneficial changes.Gang members have long been perceived as one of the mostintractable banes of society. They tend to drop out of school, commitcrimes, and engage in other delinquent behaviors at rates far exceedingthose of the general population (Asbury, 1928; Belitz & Valdez,1994; Jankowski, 1991; New York City New York City:see New York, city. New York CityCity (pop., 2000: 8,008,278), southeastern New York, at the mouth of the Hudson River. The largest city in the U.S. Criminal Justice Agency, 1989;Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995b; Vigil,1988a). Many in mainstream society characterize gang members aspsychopathic and sociopathic, yet understand relatively little aboutthem. Upon being asked, many in society will respond to the question ofwhy gang members behave the way they do with a simplistic sim��plism?n.The tendency to oversimplify an issue or a problem by ignoring complexities or complications.[French simplisme, from simple, simple, from Old French; see simple "theyjust want to cause trouble" or "they are stuck within a lowSES (socioeconomic status socioeconomic status,n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. )."Historically, gangs have existed among various ethnic communitiesin the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , including gangs in numerous Latino, AfricanAmerican African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. , Asian, and White (non-Latino, Anglo and non-Anglo) communities(Asbury, 1928; Jankowski, 1991; Moore, 1985; New York City CriminalJustice Agency, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995b;Thrasher thrasher:see mimic thrush. thrasherAny of 17 species (family Mimidae) of New World songbirds that have a downcurved bill and are noted for noisily foraging on the ground in dense thickets and for loud, varied songs. , 1927; Vigil, 1988a). Such historical examples would includeethnic gangs of Mexican, Chinese, Irish, and Polish ancestry.Contemporary examples would include the preceding four groups, as wellas such diverse cases as Dominican, Vietnamese, and Russian gangs(Friedman, 2000; Jankowski, 1991; Vigil & Yun, 1990), includingscenarios in which potential gang recruits of less commonlygang-affiliated ethnic backgrounds are incorporated into moreestablished ethnic gangs in an alternative form of U.S. "equalopportunity" (Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco, 1999;Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995b; Vigil, 1988a). U.S. Latinogangs, however, have existed since the increase in Latin Americanimmigration immigration,entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. to the U.S. earlier in the twentieth century and theconcomitant society-imposed marginalization mar��gin��al��ize?tr.v. mar��gin��al��ized, mar��gin��al��iz��ing, mar��gin��al��iz��esTo relegate or confine to a lower or outer limit or edge, as of social standing. that quickly accompaniedthat increase (Buriel, 1984; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995b;Vigil, 1988a, 1999; for a percipient analysis of pariah group status,see De Vos De Vos.For persons thus named, use Vos.& Suarez-Orozco, 1990; for an acute examination ofsimilar statuses as they relate to children of immigrants, seeSuarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001).Presently, the U.S. gang member population's Latino component(much of which contains members that tend to average between 13 and 25years of age [Vigil, 1988a]) constitutes a substantial portion of theLatino population in the United States, particularly in the inner city(Buriel, 1984; Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; Derbyshire, 1968; Jankowski,1991; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995b; Vigil, 1988a, 1988b,1999), as the numbers attest. Of the 35.3 million Latinos in the U.S.,most are located in urban areas (U.S. Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United StatesBureau of the Census , 1995, 2001). (Manyof these Latinos are products of the "31 Flavors" immigration[Caldera caldera:see crater. calderaLarge, bowl-shaped volcanic depression that forms when the top of a volcanic cone collapses into the space left after magma is ejected during a violent volcanic eruption. The term is Spanish for “caldron. , 1998], a metaphorical reference to the ice cream company witha broad range of flavors, and the broad range of ethnic groups, manyfrom Latin America Latin America,the Spanish-speaking, Portuguese-speaking, and French-speaking countries (except Canada) of North America, South America, Central America, and the West Indies. , represented in the post-1965 U.S. "newimmigration" [Espin, 1987; Hing, 1993; Portes and Rumbaut, 1996;Suarez-Orozco, 1998].) Estimates place 4 to 15 percent (almost as manyas 1 in 6) of much of the urban Latino population as gang members orotherwise gang involved (Vigil, 1999). Yet this presents even lesssolace for some urban communities, such as East Los Angeles East Los Angeles,uninc. city (1990 pop. 126,379), Los Angeles co., S Calif., a residential suburb of Los Angeles, in an industrial area. It has a large Mexican-American population. There is a performing arts center and a cultural center. A junior college is there. , whereLatino gang members tend to be located in far greater proportions thantheir overall presence in the United States (Adler, Hocevar, &Ovando, 1984; Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; Derbyshire, 1968; Jankowski,1991; Moore, 1985; Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco &Suarez-Orozco, 1995b; Vigil, 1988a, 1988b). In some of these urbancenters, Latino gang members can consist of as much as 40 percent(almost 1 in 2) of the urban Latino population, and even more in somecases (Suarez-Orozco, 1999).With that in mind, this paper examines some of the psychosocial andsociocultural developmental theories and research regarding thedelinquent achievement orientation of Latino gang members and theirinvolvement in gangs; a better understanding of their involvementcontributes to a better understanding of their anomalous orientation toachievement. What are the psychosocial and sociocultural developmentalfactors affecting Latino gang members' orientation and motivationtowards the achievement of delinquent behavior? An examination of thesedevelopmental factors will demonstrate the thesis that the Latino gangmember orientation and motivation towards the achievement of delinquentbehavior, largely perceived as deviant by mainstream society, isactually an alternative response to repellent conditions. This response,often seen as abnormal by society as a whole, is a perception ofachievement from within a diverted context that is misunderstood by manywithin mainstream society, a perception of abnormal or delinquentachievement behavior, such as dropping out of school or committingcrime, as the norm or standard to attain. This examination consists ofthe following trifurcated analysis:1. First, the connection between culture and identity, and theirimpact on alternative achievement orientation, is explored viaOgbu's (1992) theory of voluntary/involuntary minorities and itsrelation to Latinos, Buriel's (1984) expansion of Berry's(1980) theory of deculturation among Latinos, Derbyshire's (1968)concept of self-identity crisis among Latinos, Suarez-Orozco's(1989) dual frame of reference theory and its connection to compositeLatino cultural perspectives, and Vigil's (1988a, 1988b)conceptualization con��cep��tu��al��ize?v. con��cep��tu��al��ized, con��cep��tu��al��iz��ing, con��cep��tu��al��iz��esv.tr.To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: of difficulty in the development of self-identityamong Latino gang members.2. Next, the extrinsic EVIDENCE, EXTRINSIC. External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a , or external, influences impacting Latinogang member development and delinquent achievement orientation arereviewed by way of Adler, Hocevar, and Ovando's (1984) conceptionof the familial influences on delinquent achievement orientation andgang membership among Latinos, Moore's (1985) notion of Latinocommunity-ascribed gang member stigmatization stigmatization/stig��ma��ti��za��tion/ (stig?mah-ti-za��shun)1. the developing of or being identified as possessing one or more stigmata.2. the act or process of negatively labelling or characterizing another. of Latino youth resultingin self-fulfilling prophecies among those youth, Suarez-Orozco andSuarez-Orozco's (1995b) recognition of discretely extrinsicfactors, fundamentally distinct from those of ethnicity, affectingLatino delinquent achievement orientation, and Vigil's (1988a,1999) theory of multiple marginality in Latino gang member developmentand delinquent achievement orientation.3. Finally, the extrinsic influence of street gang socialization socialization/so��cial��iza��tion/ (so?shal-i-za��shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so��cial��i��za��tionn. ondelinquent achievement orientation among Latino gang members isdiscussed in an included section by means of Calabrese and Noboa's(1995) concept of alternative socialization among Latino gang members inreplacing lack of the same from school, family, or church, and Belitzand Valdez' (1994) understanding of the street gang functioning asa "surrogate family" of sorts to satisfy the unmetpsychological and emotional needs of Latino gang members.The Nexus of Culture and IdentityResearchers and theorists have found culture to be inextricably in��ex��tri��ca��ble?adj.1. a. So intricate or entangled as to make escape impossible: an inextricable maze; an inextricable web of deceit.b. intertwined with the development of self-identity, particularly in thedevelopment of self-identity among Latinos and, as an extension, Latinogang members (Berry, 1980; Buriel, 1984; Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; DeVos & Suarez-Orozco, 1990; Derbyshire, 1968; Ogbu, 1992;Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a, 1995b,2001; Vigil, 1988a, 1988b, 1999). The theory of voluntary) andinvoluntary minorities proposed by Ogbu (1992) dichotomizes minoritiesinto essentially two categories: voluntary, or immigrant, minorities andinvoluntary, or castelike, minorities. Voluntary minorities arecharacterized by Ogbu as having relocated to the United States onprimarily a voluntary basis and possessing primary cultural differences(e.g., language, styles of learning, etc.) that are different from thoseof the U.S., but not necessarily contrary to them. These primarycultural differences existed prior to the immigration of voluntaryminorities to the U.S. In this way, these differences do not serve asestablished obstacles between voluntary minorities and the U.S. majorityculture, and voluntary minorities can therefore eventually acculturateor assimilate to the U.S. mainstream culture over a period of timewithout experiencing a sense of opposition (e.g., accepting mainstreamschool norms by achieving academically).Involuntary, or castelike, minorities, on the other hand, such asparticular Latinos (those descended from areas of the U.S. that areformer Mexican territories ceded to the U.S. by way of the Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgo The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is the peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States[1][2] to the interim government of a militarily occupied Mexico, that ended the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). [1848] that ended the Mexican War Mexican War,1846–48, armed conflict between the United States and Mexico.CausesWhile the immediate cause of the war was the U.S. annexation of Texas (Dec., 1845), other factors had disturbed peaceful relations between the two republics. [1846-1848]),African Americans descended from U.S. slavery, and Native Americans,were originally incorporated into the social structure of the U.S.against their will, resulting in secondary cultural differences viatheir relegation RELEGATION, civil law. Among the Romans relegation was a banishment to a certain place, and consequently was an interdiction of all places except the one designated. 2. It differed from deportation. (q.v.) Relegation and deportation agree u these particulars: 1. . These secondary cultural differences, Ogbu notes, aresimilar to primary cultural differences in appearance, but not infunction, in that secondary cultural differences are responses to thelong-standing historical obstacles placed between involuntary minoritiesand the majority culture. In this way, involuntary minorities perceiveacculturation acculturation,culture changes resulting from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. or assimilation to U.S. mainstream society as antipodal an��tip��o��dal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or situated on the opposite side or sides of the earth: Australia and Great Britain occupy antipodal regions.2. Diametrically opposed; exactly opposite. totheir interests and relative position. Instead, proposes Ogbu,involuntary minorities tend to cope by opposing acculturation orassimilation in response to their historical subjugation SubjugationCushan-rishathaim Aramking to whom God sold Israelites. [O.T.: Judges 3:8]Gibeonitesconsigned to servitude in retribution for trickery. [O.T.: Joshua 9:22–27]Ham Noahcurses him and progeny to servitude. [O. by the dominantmainstream society of the U.S. This helps serve to explain theoppositional position taken by involuntary minority Latino gang membersin response to being involuntary minorities by engaging in behavior thatdiffers from mainstream norms of the U.S. (e.g., an involuntary minorityLatino gang member failing classes in school in order to satisfy anoppositional standard of achievement).Related to the reactionary state of involuntary minoritiespropounded by Ogbu is the state of deculturation introduced by Berry(1980) and expanded upon by Buriel (1984) in the case of Latino gangmembers. Buriel suggests that because of seemingly inexorableassimilation attempts on the part of the dominant mainstream society inthe U.S. that tend to not fully assimilate Latinos, some Latinos may beleft in an state of anomie anomie,a social condition characterized by instability, the breakdown of social norms, institutional disorganization, and a divorce between socially valid goals and available means for achieving them. (an unstable societal condition characterizedby a disjuncture dis��junc��ture?n.Disjunction; disunion; separation.Noun 1. disjuncture - state of being disconnecteddisconnectedness, disconnection, disjunctionseparation - the state of lacking unity between socially valid goals and the available meansfor achieving those goals). (For an extended exploration of crisesrelated to anomic anomic/ano��mic/ (ah-no��mik) lacking a name. a��no��micadj.Socially unstable, alienated, and disorganized.n.A socially unstable, alienated person. social conditions, see Durkheim, 1947, 1951.) It isthis very condition that strands these Latinos between the traditionalLatino culture and the dominant mainstream culture, resulting in asociocultural disconnection (i.e., deculturation). Buriel further notesthat even though this state is not entered into willingly on the part ofthese Latinos and, rather, is imposed by the macro society, thiscondition can become part of an enduring form of behavior whereby theseLatinos seek familiarity within a societal "go-between" (i.e.,the street gang) in an effort to strengthen their newfound new��found?adj.Recently discovered: a newfound pastime.Adj. 1. newfound - newly discovered; "his newfound aggressiveness"; "Hudson pointed his ship down the coast of the newfound sea" adulterated a��dul��ter��ate?tr.v. a��dul��ter��at��ed, a��dul��ter��at��ing, a��dul��ter��atesTo make impure by adding extraneous, improper, or inferior ingredients.adj.1. Spurious; adulterated.2. Adulterous. identity and attempt to "reach out" to the traditional Latinoculture that is perceived as having been lost or attenuated AttenuatedAlive but weakened; an attenuated microorganism can no longer produce disease.Mentioned in: Tuberculin Skin Testattenuatedhaving undergone a process of attenuation. . In essence,these Latinos seek out a once unfamiliar entity (i.e., the Latino streetgang) that has now become a vehicle for the sharing of alternative normsfor these Latinos. This sharing of alternative norms is personified indifferential achievement behavior among these Latinos; for example,being truant from school would be one way for these Latinos to displaytheir contempt for an aspect they interpret as being part of traditionalmainstream cultural values (school) while sharing their alternativeexperiences and marginalization.The aforementioned disparity between different cultures can bemanifested in self-identity conflicts among Latinos, as inDerbyshire's (1968) study of 89 Latino adolescents hailing fromEast Los Angeles that investigated the relation of Latinos to Latinoculture and the effects on self-identity. Specifically, Derbyshireadministered a 34-page questionnaire asking for objective identifyingdata, as well as for a completion of 24 concepts and 19 Osgood semanticdifferential Semantic differential is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. Nominalists and realistsTheoretical underpinnings of Charles E. scales. The scales were used to indicate relative valuesand orientations towards "Mexican" and "American"(United States) concepts (e.g., proud vs. humble, darker skin vs.lighter skin, etc.) and the relation of each to self-identity.Derbyshire hypothesized that the Latino study participants who moreclosely identified with Latino culture had fewer self-identity conflictsthan those who did not as closely identify with Latino culture did.Based on the participants' responses, Derbyshire concluded that theincorporation of Latino culture among the participants contributed to astable sense of self-identity and served as a form of protection againsthostility from mainstream society. Those participants who were moreambivalent about incorporating Latino culture into their system ofbeliefs were concluded to be more susceptible to self-identity crisis.This directly relates to the estrangement from Latino culture and theconsequent self-identity shifts referred to by Buriel (1984) in hisexpansion of the theory of deculturation, correlating with thetransition in self-identity among Latino gang members and thecorresponding engagement in alternative, or delinquent, achievementbehavior.However, one significant limitation of Derbyshire's study isthe substantial dependence upon stereotypes of "Mexican" and"American" behavior, culture, and identity. There is no setdefinition for exactly what a person of Mexican ethnicity is"supposed" to perceive, nor is there the same for an Americanfor that matter (particularly for an American, given the broad range ofdiversity in the United States). His study should be viewed with theincorporated strictures of stereotypes in mind. However,Derbyshire's findings are certainly notable, and do relate to thefindings of others (see Buriel, 1984). The merit of his study inshedding light on self-identity conflict and crisis among Latinos ishelpful in understanding the resultant setting of alternativeachievement goals to reconcile that inner conflict, as in joining aLatino street gang and becoming involved in criminal activity, forexample.Adulterated Latino cultural perspectives can result in edified ed��i��fy?tr.v. ed��i��fied, ed��i��fy��ing, ed��i��fiesTo instruct especially so as to encourage intellectual, moral, or spiritual improvement. viewpoints of Latino identity in the United States or, in some cases,can encourage pathogenesis, as skillfully skill��ful?adj.1. Possessing or exercising skill; expert. See Synonyms at proficient.2. Characterized by, exhibiting, or requiring skill. demonstrated by Suarez-Orozco(1989). His dual frame of reference theory places some U.S. immigrantLatinos (those who have left infelicitous realities, such as conditionsof violence, sociopolitical so��ci��o��po��li��ti��cal?adj.Involving both social and political factors.sociopoliticalAdjectiveof or involving political and social factors and otherwise, in their home countries) intoa dyadic Two. Refers to two components being used. (programming) dyadic - binary (describing an operator).Compare monadic. scenario within which their lives and identities in the UnitedStates are personally assessed vis-a-vis their unfortunate experiencesin their native lands. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Suarez-Orozco, this duality Duality (physics)The state of having two natures, which is often applied in physics. The classic example is wave-particle duality. The elementary constituents of nature—electrons, quarks, photons, gravitons, and so on—behave in some respects betweenan individual Latino's reality in a given country and that in theUnited States grants these Latinos the ability to juxtapose jux��ta��pose?tr.v. jux��ta��posed, jux��ta��pos��ing, jux��ta��pos��esTo place side by side, especially for comparison or contrast. one againstthe other and therefore perceive what is often realized as a favorableexistence in the United States.As noted by Suarez-Orozco, however, for some of these U.S.immigrant Latinos and many other Latinos experiencing conditions ofviolence and abuse, the traumatic impact, psychosocial and otherwise, ofviolent realities can compromise salubrity sa��lu��bri��ous?adj.Conducive or favorable to health or well-being.[From Latin sal to a particular extent atwhich a delinquent identity can effectively be almost a fait accompli,regardless of a frame of reference, dual or otherwise. (For analyses ofviolence, abuse, trauma, and their correlated effects among Latinos,including the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD), mental disorder that follows an occurrence of extreme psychological stress, such as that encountered in war or resulting from violence, childhood abuse, sexual abuse, or serious accident. [PTSD PTSDposttraumatic stress disorder. PTSDabbr.posttraumatic stress disorderPost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)] [apsychological disorder Noun 1. psychological disorder - (psychiatry) a psychological disorder of thought or emotion; a more neutral term than mental illnessfolie, mental disorder, mental disturbance, disturbance affecting those who have experienced profoundemotional trauma], see Arroyo & Eth, 1985; Belitz & Valdez,1994; Corradi, 1987; Duran & Padilla, 1995; Reynoso, 2000; Robben& Suarez-Orozco, 2000; Suarez-Orozco, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992;Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a, 1995b, 2001; Taussig, 1987;Timerman, 1981; Vigil, 1988a.) As a vivid illustration of this point,Suarez-Orozco reflects extensively on the "culture of terror"imposed via violence on certain Latinos. His brilliant reflections meritbeing quoted verbatim, as in the following case (Suarez-Orozco, 1989): As a Kafkian character on trial by his own unconscious mind, Ernesto's fears followed him day and night and he became a captive of the culture of terror, although he was innocent. He felt terrorized and was castigated by an inner voice quoting the outer madness. (p. 64)As Suarez-Orozco indicates, the "culture of terror" andthe collateral "culture of fear" that engender en��gen��der?v. en��gen��dered, en��gen��der��ing, en��gen��dersv.tr.1. To bring into existence; give rise to: "Every cloud engenders not a storm" the"internalization InternalizationA decision by a brokerage to fill an order with the firm's own inventory of stock.Notes:When a brokerage receives an order they have numerous choices as to how it should be filled. of terror" and "internalization offear" have a composition all their own, as do other culturalsystems. Indeed, for some Latinos, it is this"internalization" that results in the hegemony of the"culture of terror" over the mind. Suarez-Orozco'sexposition is instrumental in developing a comprehension of those Latinogang members whose identified delinquent achievement orientation iscorrelated to being traumatized and saddled with the mephitic mephitic/me��phit��ic/ (me-fit��ik) emitting a foul odor. me��phit��icadj.Having a foul odor; foul-smelling.mephiticnoxious; foul smelling. sequelae sequelaeClinical medicine The consequences of a particular condition or therapeutic intervention often associated with violence and torture. (For deft additionalexaminations of various facets of social and self-identity conflicts,see De Vos & Suarez-Orozco, 1990; re children of immigrants,Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001.)An additional perspective with regard to self-identity among Latinogang members is provided by Vigil's (1988a, 1988b)conceptualization of difficulties faced by some Latino youth in theirdevelopment of self-identity. Basing his findings on a 5-year study ofLatino gang members located in Southern California Southern California, also colloquially known as SoCal, is the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. Centered on the cities of Los Angeles and San Diego, Southern California is home to nearly 24 million people and is the nation's second most populated region, , to whomquestionnaire-based surveys were administered and interviews taken,Vigil proposes that the difficulties faced by some Latino youth in theirdevelopment of self-identity are due to odious stressors (e.g., ethnicgroup generational conflicts) in their lives. These stressors, in turn,compel a transition by Latino youth to gang activity to satisfy theirdesire for the acquisition of self-identity.Utilizing Erikson's (1956) theory of the psychosocialmoratorium (a stage between childhood and adulthood when peersespecially help guide self-identification) (see also De Vos &Suarez-Orozco, 1990), Vigil suggests that these Latino youth satisfytheir desire for self-identity via developmental roles within thesubcultural group context of the street gang. According to Vigil, thereconciliation of psychosocial, self-identity conflicts occurs by way ofan eventual complementarity com��ple��men��tar��i��tyn.1. The correspondence or similarity between nucleotides or strands of nucleotides of DNA and RNA molecules that allows precise pairing.2. between the ego (the self) of the Latinogang member and the ego's integration into the gang member'sgroup (gang) role, that is, the group (gang) essentially becomes partand parcel of the ego ideal ego idealn.In psychoanalytic theory, the part of one's ego that contains an idealized self based on those people, especially parents and peers, one admires and wishes to emulate. (the part of one's self by one's self; without help or prompting; spontaneously.See also: Of , or ego, thatcontains an idealized i��de��al��ize?v. i��de��al��ized, i��de��al��iz��ing, i��de��al��iz��esv.tr.1. To regard as ideal.2. To make or envision as ideal.v.intr.1. self based on the admiration and emulation ofothers) of the gang member. Of note is the study's unspecifiednumber of gang members; this creates a limitation in placing the studyinto complete context. Nonetheless, Vigil's study demonstrates theinfluences of gang member ideals in the outpacing of other demands(e.g., parent and teacher expectancies) by those same gang influences.By extension, these influences contribute to the having of analternative, or delinquent, achievement orientation by Latino gangmembers that is in accordance with the alternative, or delinquent,achievement ideals of the Latino street gang.Extrinsic InfluencesExtrinsic, or external, influences, such as one's family orcommunity, have been shown to have profound effects in the developmentof Latino gang members and their related delinquent achievementmotivation and orientation (Adler, Hocevar, & Ovando, 1984; Belitz& Valdez, 1994; Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; Jankowski, 1991; Moore,1985; Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a,1995b, 2001; Vigil, 1988a, 1988b, 1999). The impact of familialinfluences on Latino involvement in gangs and the having of a deviantachievement orientation were demonstrated by Adler, Hocevar, and Ovando(1984) in a study involving 30 lower class (as described in the study)Latina mothers (ranging from 36 to 56 years of age), fifteen of whomwere the mothers of gang members, and fifteen of whom were not. All ofthe mothers participating in the study lived in the East Los Angelesarea and had at least one child of at least fifteen years of age. Usingan open-ended 50-minute interview format, the mothers responded toquestions asking them to speak of their children's activities,behavior, involvement in gangs (if indeed the case), and the familyvariables involved in each case (e.g., family interaction andsocialization).Results of the study indicated that there were distinct differencesbetween the families of gang members versus the families of non-gangmembers. The families of gang members tended to have minimal orperfunctory per��func��to��ry?adj.1. Done routinely and with little interest or care: The operator answered the phone with a perfunctory greeting.2. Acting with indifference; showing little interest or care. levels of socialization within the family unit. The childrenof these same families were often unsupervised. Additionally, there waslittle emphasis placed on expressions of affection among the members ofthe families of gang members, and the mothers in these same familiesseemed to be more discontent and discouraged with their lot in life thanwere the mothers of the non-gang members. The authors of the studysuggested that these findings reflected the lower levels of affectionand warmth in the families of the gang members, lower levels that, inturn, had contributing effects to the involvement of the Latino gangmembers in gangs and the having of a deviant achievement orientation.One might give some amount of due regard to the rather small size of thestudy in considering the possible limitations of the study; however, theoutcomes of the study are consistent with the natural expectationsarising out of the studied conditions. It is important to note that theattenuated connection between the family and the Latino gang memberarose out of this study as a contributing factor to street ganginvolvement and delinquent motivation by Latino gang members, but didnot demonstrably serve as an overwhelming influence. Further, the senseof discontent expressed by the mothers of the Latino gang members in thestudy could have developed as a result of their children's behaviorand involvement in street gangs to begin with. Nevertheless, despitethis additional limitation, this study does provide valuable insightinto some of the dynamics of such families.Moore (1985) has taken an interesting perspective on the role thesurrounding Latino community plays in the development of Latino gangmembers in East Los Angeles and their related delinquent achievementorientation. Moore proposes that some of the members of the largerLatino community in East Los Angeles have a tendency to ascribe as��cribe?tr.v. as��cribed, as��crib��ing, as��cribes1. To attribute to a specified cause, source, or origin: "Other people ascribe his exclusion from the canon to an unsubtle form of racism"certaindenigrating den��i��grate?tr.v. den��i��grat��ed, den��i��grat��ing, den��i��grates1. To attack the character or reputation of; speak ill of; defame.2. characteristics to younger members of the Latino communityof East Los Angeles, taking these cues of ascription as��crip��tion?n.1. The act of ascribing.2. A statement that ascribes.[Latin ascr from thesurrounding mainstream Anglo society. These attributions placed upon theyounger Latinos can lead to the fulfillment of these negativeexpectations by these youth, who thereby essentially engage inself-fulfilling prophecies via the stigmatization by the very communitythese Latino youth live in. This ignominious ig��no��min��i��ous?adj.1. Marked by shame or disgrace: "It was an ignominious end ... as a desperate mutiny by a handful of soldiers blossomed into full-scale revolt"Angus Deming. fulfillment of communityexpectations by way of becoming gang members leaves Latino youth (atleast the ones Moore refers to in East Los Angeles) with practically nosupport from even their own community. Moore perceives this as thedevelopment of a Latino gang underclass that is even more resistant tosalutary change because of the constant reinforcement provided by thesurrounding community. This is essentially akin to the process ofnegative teacher expectancies (the negative expectations a teacher mayhave for his or her students [Brophy, 1979; Suarez-Orozco, 1989;Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a, 1995b, 2001; Vigil, 1988a,1999]) and the depreciative de��pre��cia��to��ry? also de��pre��cia��tiveadj.1. Diminishing in value.2. Disparaging; belittling.Adj. 1. impact of those expectancies on studentperformance, similar to the aforementioned members of the communityhaving negative expectations of community youth and the impact of thosedisparaging dis��par��age?tr.v. dis��par��aged, dis��par��ag��ing, dis��par��ag��es1. To speak of in a slighting or disrespectful way; belittle. See Synonyms at decry.2. To reduce in esteem or rank. expectations on subsequent gang-related behavior anddelinquent achievement orientation among those same youth.Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco (1995b) have developed and utilizedan intellectually trenchant approach to the identification of factorsdisparate from those of ethnic background in determining the effects ofextrinsic factors on the development of Latino delinquent achievementorientation, and by extension, that of Latino gang members. Employing auniquely protean pro��te��anadj.Readily taking on varied shapes, forms, or meanings.proteanchanging form or assuming different shapes. methodology (via methods of psychological anthropology Psychological anthropology is a highly interdiscplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. In particular, psychological anthropologists tend to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular ,research psychology, and cross-cultural psychology The references in this article would be clearer with a different and/or consistent style of citation, footnoting or external linking.Cross-cultural psychology ), Suarez-Orozco andSuarez-Orozco studied 189 adolescents (with participants ranging between13 and 18 years of age) of four different categories, going tomethodological pains to ensure that the adolescents were from arepresentative socioeconomic range of each group they identified with.The four participant categories included the following (as described inthe study): 47 Mexicans (born in Mexico to Mexican parents and residingin Mexico), 48 Mexican immigrants (born in Mexico to Mexican parents andresiding in the United States), 47 second-generation Latinos (born andraised in the United States to Mexican immigrant parents), and 47 WhiteAmericans (born and raised in the United States to White [Anglo],non-Latino, U.S.-born parents).Participants were assessed through a series of structured andinformal interviews, as well as the following psychological measures: afamilism scale consisting of 14 questions to measure participants'familial connectedness, a family conflict scale consisting of twelvequestions, the Thematic Apperception Test thematic apperception test:see psychological tests. (a projective test pro��jec��tive testn.A psychological test in which a subject's responses to ambiguous or unstructured stimuli, such as a series of cartoons or incomplete sentences, are analyzed to determine personality traits, feelings, or attitudes. in whichparticipants tell a story suggested by each of a standardized set ofpictures displaying various situations), the Problem Situation Test (aprojective test in which participants respond to scenarios involving theresolution of conflict between parental and peer group pressures), andthe Sentence Completion Test (a test used to determineparticipants' attitudes toward various topics, including family,peers, school, achievement, and the future). As delineated de��lin��e��ate?tr.v. de��lin��e��at��ed, de��lin��e��at��ing, de��lin��e��ates1. To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out.2. To represent pictorially; depict.3. bySuarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco, results demonstrated a widespreadbelief among the Mexican and Mexican immigrant participants thatschooling is essential to an enhanced future, whereas among the moreU.S. acculturated Latino participants (second-generation Latinos),disillusionment DisillusionmentAdams, Nickloses innocence through WWI experience. [Am. Lit.: “The Killers”]Angry Young Mendisillusioned postwar writers of Britain, such as Osborne and Amis. [Br. Lit. and truncated truncatedadjective Shortened expectations for the future were morecommon. In fact, as pointed out by Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco,higher levels of skepticism and ambivalence about the future were foundamong students with higher levels of U.S. acculturation. As ademonstration of this, Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco also indicatethat of the participants, those with the highest levels of U.S.acculturation, the White American students, exhibited the least concernabout school achievement and very ambivalent attitudes toward schooling.What is profoundly distinctive about this study is its evaluationof Latino achievement motivation independent of immigration and minoritystatus by way of a more realistic, cross-cultural approach reflective ofcomplex realities. This cross-cultural approach, as Suarez-Orozco andSuarez-Orozco note, thereby identifies U.S. culturally influenced, orU.S. acculturated, factors of achievement motivation and attitudes fromthose (e.g., culture shock, disorientation disorientation/dis��or��i��en��ta��tion/ (-or?e-en-ta��shun) the loss of proper bearings, or a state of mental confusion as to time, place, or identity. , discrimination) that are apossible consequence of immigrant and minority status. Such intricateconcerns obviously do not exist within a vacuum of reality, and thiscross-cultural approach is therefore a fundamentally importantdivergence from many studies that have examined Latino achievementmotivation from a perspective of psychocultural patterns among onlyimmigrant and second generation Latinos. The identification of higherlevels of disenchantment dis��en��chant?tr.v. dis��en��chant��ed, dis��en��chant��ing, dis��en��chantsTo free from illusion or false belief; undeceive.[Obsolete French desenchanter, from Old French, among those who are more U.S. acculturatedevidences a psychosocial transition in Latino achievement orientationsubsequent to Latino acquisition of U.S. minority status, serving tohelp explain a Latino accretion towards delinquent achievementorientation, as in the case of Latino gang members. (For insightfulfurther dissections of acculturation, see De Vos & Suarez-Orozco,1990; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001.)The impact of extrinsic influences on the development of Latinogang members and their delinquent achievement motivation is exhaustivelyaccounted for by Vigil (1988a, 1988b, 1999). With regard to Latino gangmembers, Vigil's (1988a, 1999) multiple marginality theoreticalframework takes into account the effects of life in the barrio bar��ri��o?n. pl. bar��ri��os1. An urban district or quarter in a Spanish-speaking country.2. A chiefly Spanish-speaking community or neighborhood in a U.S. city. (a lowSES urban area in which Spanish is routinely spoken by residents thatare primarily of Latino ethnicity), low SES status, the socializationthat occurs within the street gang context (to be focused on in the nextsection), and the dilemmas Latino gang members face in developing asense of self-identity (as discussed in the previous section). Thesefundamental aspects of the lives of Latino gang members compose amelding of psychosocial and sociocultural forces within Vigil'sframework that have a consistent, perpetually corrosive outcome on thedevelopment of Latino gang members. This approach to Latino gang memberdevelopment differs from many other single-pronged approaches in thatthe convolutions forming these developmental conditions are actuallyreflected within the framework, rather than rebuffed in favor of overlysimplistic explanations for complex behavior. Again, as mentionedearlier, it is the combination of these developmental conditions thatplace the Latino gang member into a delinquent achievement motivationcontext whereby the attaining of the abnormal has become the norm, andthe involvement of that gang member in gang behavior fulfills thatobjective because of the antithetical an��ti��thet��i��cal? also an��ti��thet��icadj.1. Of, relating to, or marked by antithesis.2. Being in diametrical opposition. See Synonyms at opposite. nature of that behavior incomparison to "traditional" achievement (e.g., academicachievement).Street Gang SocializationAt first glance, this section would appear to belong within theprevious section of extrinsic influences; indeed, street gangsocialization is an extrinsic influence (Asbury, 1928; Belitz &Valdez, 1994; Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; Jankowski, 1991; New YorkCity Criminal Justice Agency, 1989; Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco& Suarez-Orozco, 1995a, 1995b, 2001; Thrasher, 1927; Vigil, 1988a,1988b, 1999). However, the unique dynamics that take place in thedevelopment of a delinquent achievement orientation via street gangsocialization merit the inclusion of a separate section. The alternativesocialization derived through the inner workings of the street gangoften makes a considerable difference in the development of delinquentachievement motivation and involvement in street gangs among prospectiveLatino gang members (Belitz & Valdez, 1994; Calabrese & Noboa,1995; Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a,1995b, 2001; Vigil, 1988a, 1988b, 1999). Calabrese and Noboa (1995)placed this alternative socialization into a decision-making context.After conducting interviews with almost 150 Latino gang members (theages of the gang members and the format of the interviews areunspecified; this provides somewhat of a contextual limitation),Calabrese and Noboa concluded that the alternative socialization thattakes place in the life of the Latino gang member by way of the Latinostreet gang serves to replace the failed efforts of social entities andinstitutions (e.g., schools, families, and churches). Utilizing adecision-making framework proposed by Janis and Mann (1977), Calabreseand Noboa suggest that this street gang socialization proceeds along thefollowing five-stage decision-making process:1. The first stage requires the decision-maker to be cognizant ofexisting threat(s) involved in the making of the decision. For theprospective Latino gang member, not joining the gang can actually beperceived as more of a threat than joining the gang, in that a decisionto not join may carry with it a perceived loss of status among peers.2. The second stage involves the decision-maker perceiving theexistence of only one possible option. Faced with a gamut of insidiousinfluences in life, the prospective Latino gang member may contextuallyperceive the street gang as the only available option, as Calabrese andNoboa propose.3. The third stage has the decision-maker engaging in the denial ofalternative options in the hope that the decision-making will notbackfire. Latino gang members that are about to become newlyproselytized may sense the pernicious nature of their decision to join astreet gang, but at this stage it is often easier to deny soundpossibilities and continue along the same continuum of decision-making.4. The fourth stage is defined as having an understanding of all ofthe options available to the decision-maker. In the case of theprospective Latino gang member, this may be embodied in an understandingof the potential threat to one's self by other street gangs andgang members, the lack of mitigation of that threat by the properauthorities, and the near decision by the prospective Latino gang memberto join a street gang, adopt a delinquent achievement orientation, andattempt to self-mitigate the aforementioned potential threat.5. The fifth stage is when a decision is actually made afterweighing the potential consequences of all of the various options andchoosing the one that results in the most benefit for thedecision-maker. As Calabrese and Noboa suggest, for the prospectiveLatino gang member who actually joins a street gang, it is patentlyobvious that the decision made was one that was not made within acomplete context of consideration and, instead, was a poorly made choice(although the decision made may be perceived by the decision-maker,i.e., the prospective Latino gang member, as the one that was the mostbeneficial).The foregoing proposed framework of decision-making is helpful inbetter understanding the processes by which prospective Latino gangmembers may decide to join street gangs and adopt a delinquentachievement orientation. As Calabrese and Noboa indicate, given that thestreet gang socialization that occurs is far more complex than itappears to be, placing that socialization within a step-by-step seriesof decisions provides critical insight into the possible decisions madeby prospective Latino gang members based on their alternative views ofmainstream norms.Belitz and Valdez (1994) also discuss delinquent achievementmotivation and involvement in gang activity among Latino gang membersvia street gang socialization and the functioning of the street gang inthe lives of these gang members as a "surrogate family" tosatisfy their psychological and emotional needs. After performing areview of extant research and perspectives on the dynamics of gangparticipation and delinquent achievement orientation among gang members,including issues of familial dysfunction, adolescent identity, emotionaldisturbances, mastery of emotions, and competence in the gang membershipcontext, Belitz and Valdez present a case study of a 17-year-old Latinogang member who sought out the street gang as a form of surrogatefamily, and the attendant street gang socialization that accompanied histransition to the street gang. The gang member had been routinely beatenby his adoptive father one who adopts the child of another, treating it as his own.See also: Father , a factor that would characterize this study forinclusion in the foregoing section of extrinsic influences. But thestreet gang socialization in this case became a significant factor, asthe participant in the study noted that he viewed the street gang he wasinvolved in as "mi familia This article is about the Polish political party. For other uses, see Familia (disambiguation). Familia ("The Family," from the Romain familia " (my family) (Belitz & Valdez,1994), a family that, as he was socialized so��cial��ize?v. so��cial��ized, so��cial��iz��ing, so��cial��iz��esv.tr.1. To place under government or group ownership or control.2. To make fit for companionship with others; make sociable. to believe by the streetgang, would never betray or mistreat him, as his father had. This streetgang socialization led this study participant to expect the satisfactionof his psychological and emotional needs by way of socialized supportfrom the street gang and his engagement in delinquent achievementbehavior. In essence, the expectancies placed upon the street gang bythe Latino gang member took precedence over the expectancies placed uponthe parents, particularly when the parents (especially the father)appeared to be incapable of fulfilling the gang member's needs.Discussion and ConclusionThis paper set out to examine some of the psychosocial andsociocultural developmental theories and research regarding Latino gangmembers and their involvement in gangs in an effort to achieve animproved understanding of their divergent orientation to achievement.What is clear from a review of the literature is that, among Latino gangmembers, the factors involved in the orientation and motivation toachieve delinquency are directly related to the confluence confluence/con��flu��ence/ (kon��floo-ins)1. a running together; a meeting of streams.con��fluent2. in embryology, the flowing of cells, a component process of gastrulation. of issues inLatino gang member development. The psychosocial and socioculturaldevelopmental factors reviewed in this paper encompass a broadthree-part range:1. The linkage between culture and identity was explored viaOgbu's (1992) theory of voluntary/involuntary minorities and theoppositional responses to mainstream norms by some Latinos,Buriel's (1984) expansion of the theory of deculturation (Berry,1980) and the seeking out of shared differential achievement orientationexperiences among Latino gang members, Derbyshire's (1968)recognition of self-identity conflicts among Latinos and their pursuitof alternative achievement behavior in the reconciliation of thoseconflicts, Suarez-Orozco's (1989) theory of a dual frame ofreference among some Latinos via an amalgam of enlightened (or possiblypathogenic) perspectives relative to one's existence, andVigil's (1988a, 1988b) proposition of gang member alternative, ordelinquent, ideals outweighing parent and teacher expectancies.2. The impact of extrinsic influences reviewed in this paperincluded Adler, Hocevar, and Ovando's (1984) study of the relatedeffects of familial influences and the relative lack of affection in thelives of Latino gang members on the having of a deviant achievementorientation, Moore's (1985) look at denigrating communityexpectancies and their contributing effects to Latino gang behavior anddelinquent achievement orientation, Suarez-Orozco andSuarez-Orozco's (1995b) identification of higher levels ofdisillusionment among those with greater levels of U.S. acculturation,and Vigil's (1988a, 1999) multiple marginality framework in theseeking out of modes of alternative, delinquent achievement insatisfying abnormal behavior among Latino gang members.3. The extended focus on the extrinsic influence of street gangsocialization was provided by way of Calabrese and Noboa's (1995)suggested decision-making paradigm of Latino gang members in decidingwhether to adopt a delinquent achievement orientation, and Belitz andValdez' (1994) interpretation of the Latino street gang serving asa gang member's surrogate family via a greater level of gang memberascribed expectancies upon the gang than upon the parents and theaccompanying engagement in delinquent achievement behavior.The examination of the aforementioned developmental factors andtheir impact on the having of a delinquent achievement orientation amongLatino gang members allows the understanding that what many oftenperceive as merely a simplistic societal deviance from the mainstream onthe part of Latino gang members is truly complex. Indeed, thiscomplexity requires the societal acknowledgment of myriad reasons, forthe orientation towards the achievement of delinquent behavior that manyLatino gang members possess is based on a set of norms and mores alltheir own. In accordance with the thesis of this paper statedpreviously, this delinquent achievement orientation should be correctlyviewed as an interpretation of achievement on the part of the Latinogang member that is placed within a contextual "no-man'sland No-Man's landHand surgery A fanciful term for the fibrous sheath of the flexor tendons of the hand, specifically in the zone from the distal palmar crease to the proximal interphalangeal joint. See Rule of threes. " of society, a perspective by which the aberrance of abnormalachievement as interpreted by mainstream society has become the standardto meet among Latino gang members, as in the case of academic failure inthis population. It is this very perspective that serves as analternative response by Latino gang members to disturbing societalconditions that are rooted in social, cultural, ecological, economic,historical, and political dilemmas, among others, some of which havebeen discussed in this paper.The aiding of this understanding via a review of the literatureleads to the concrete comprehension that there are no easy answers toaddress questions of delinquent behavior among Latino gang members.Cursory approaches to curtailing Latino gang member activity have to bequestioned as short-sighted, especially with regard to programs thatostensibly os��ten��si��ble?adj.Represented or appearing as such; ostensive: His ostensible purpose was charity, but his real goal was popularity. seek to help alleviate the dilemmas gang members face, butmay actually exacerbate the status quo [Latin, The existing state of things at any given date.] Status quo ante bellum means the state of things before the war. The status quo to be preserved by a preliminary injunction is the last actual, peaceable, uncontested status which preceded the pending controversy. by merely addressing the symptomsof behavior rather than the causes behind that behavior. Ameliorativeefforts on the part of society and social institutions (particularly theschools) must be directed towards the understanding of underlyingdevelopmental factors of Latino gang involvement and delinquentachievement motivation and orientation if there is to be any hope ofhaving a profound effect on what ails them.Salubrious salubrious/sa��lu��bri��ous/ (sah-loo��bre-us) conducive to health; wholesome. sa��lu��bri��ousadj.Conducive or favorable to health or well-being. efforts via a combination of "prevention,intervention, and suppression" (Vigil, 1999, p. 273) should beutilized in assisting Latino gang members and producing salient salutarychanges in their development and delinquent orientation to achievement.Prevention aims, such as Head Start (U.S. educational program fordisadvantaged preschool children [Vigil, 1999]), the incorporation ofindividualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. learning strategies that involve aspects ofstudents' lives and historical cultures, and programs that helpestablish a rapport with students and strengthen the connections betweenhome and school, would serve to improve the inner bonds of families andseek to remove the stressors that can bring about street gangsocialization. Such programs would function as a means to bring togetherstudents, teachers (who could serve as "cultural brokers" tobridge generational discontinuities [Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco,1995a]), parents, and the school community (Reynoso, 2000;Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a; Vigil,1999). Intervention aims, such as providing successful role models toconvey hope (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a), treatingstudents with respect and consideration, initiating school activitiesaround them and their interests, and educating teachers in gangneighborhoods about the culture and influences of gangs, would serve tomanage behavioral issues once street gang socialization has begun(Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995a; Vigil,1999). Suppression aims, such as individualized counseling(Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Vigil, 1999) and the employment of former gangmembers, many of whom are Latino, to work with school police to increasesensitivity to gangs and gang members (Reynoso, 2000; Vigil, 1999),would serve to restrict harmful behavior, with an eye toward the changeof that behavior.In sum, respect, positive reinforcement positive reinforcement,n a technique used to encourage a desirable behavior. Also calledpositive feedback, in which the patient or subject receives encouraging and favorable communication from another person. , democratic learningenvironments (allowing for free and fair expression by all), andcultural sensitivity are the thematic elements woven throughout thesesuggestions (Suarez-Orozco, 1989; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco,1995a; Vigil, 1999). These efforts are best undertaken at the communityservice and school levels in order to have a substantive impact ondevelopment and delinquent achievement behavior among Latino gangmembers where Latino gang behavior is most often manifested, incommunities and schools. Research in the future must address theseissues from pragmatic perspectives that provide for a relative amount ofchange within the frequently limited context that often characterizesthe state of resources in Latino gang member communities.ReferencesAdler, P., Hocevar, D., & Ovando, C. (1984). 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