'Leaving more than footprints': modern votive offerings at Chaco Canyon prehistoric site.

'Leaving more than footprints': modern votive offerings at Chaco Canyon prehistoric site. A 'heritage manager' who wishes a quiet and an orderly lifemay hope their heritage place is culturally dead; whatever meaning itonce had, now it is an archaeological site, an ancient monument ancient monumentancient n → historisches Denkmal nt, atourist attraction Noun 1. tourist attraction - a characteristic that attracts touristsattractive feature, magnet, attractor, attracter, attraction - a characteristic that provides pleasure and attracts; "flowers are an attractor for bees" . But many sites are not dead. Chaco Canyon, thecelebrated complex in the desert of the US Southwest, is of continuingvalue to Native Americans of its region; and the place has become afocus for New Age ceremony - itself in part inspired by Native Americanknowledge.The title of this paper is inspired by the British CountrysideCode's appeal to 'leave nothing but footprints' at a siteof historical or environmental importance, and by a sign beside CasaRinconada, a prehistoric structure within the Chaco Canyon NationalHistorical Park in New Mexico New Mexico,state in the SW United States. At its northwestern corner are the so-called Four Corners, where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah meet at right angles; New Mexico is also bordered by Oklahoma (NE), Texas (E, S), and Mexico (S). , Southwestern USA, which states:'Kivas are sacred places. Leave nothing behind.' PhilLoPiccolo, curator of the Chaco Collection at the National Park Service,has amassed a large number of recent artefacts which the site'smanagers have found there. For the purposes of this argument, theartefacts may be termed 'modern' in that they areanachronistic a��nach��ro��nism?n.1. The representation of someone as existing or something as happening in other than chronological, proper, or historical order.2. to the 'prehistoric' setting in which they arefound. They range from crystals, burnt string and shells, to feather andwood constructions imitative im��i��ta��tive?adj.1. Of or involving imitation.2. Not original; derivative.3. Tending to imitate.4. Onomatopoeic. of native American ritual objects. Theycontinue to be curated and accessioned under LoPiccolo'sinitiative. A number were left by followers of New Age beliefs - inparticular from the Harmonic Convergence |The Harmonic Convergence was a loosely organized new age spiritual event which occurred on August 16 and August 17, 1987, when groups of people gathered in various sacred sites and "mystical" places all over the world to usher in a new era, a date based primarily on the gathering of August 1987. Arethey 'junk' or archaeological objects of meaning and value?Frederick Baker's discussion of the Berlin Wall in ANTIQUITY (1993)shows how the meanings of that 20th-century edifice range from securitysystem to sculpture, art canvas to historical monument: 'The BerlinWall, in its construction, consumption and preservation, has been all ofthese things . . . fragments of the Wall will be heirlooms passed downthrough family genealogies, an unofficial personal alternative to publicmuseums.' (Baker 1993: 731).In New Mexico, LoPiccolo held that these items of contemporary lifefound by, or handed in to, Park Rangers, were of value as signifiers ofcontinued use of the Chaco Canyon site. And while extrapolation (mathematics, algorithm) extrapolation - A mathematical procedure which estimates values of a function for certain desired inputs given values for known inputs.If the desired input is outside the range of the known values this is called extrapolation, if it is inside then from20th-century to prehistoric behaviour is problematic, there isresemblance between the 'modern' and the artefacts gatheredfrom traditional archaeological excavation.The siteThe prehistoric archaeological sites of southwest North America North America,third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. -notably in the states of New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Utah - drawvisitors in the hundreds of thousands each year. The American novelistWilla Cather described the distinctive landscape through the eyes of a19th-century European in Death comes for the Archbishop Death Comes for the Archbishop is a 1927 novel by Willa Cather.It concerns the attempts of a Catholic bishop and a priest to establish a diocese in New Mexico Territory.It is based on the careers of Archbishop Jean Baptiste Lamy and Father Joseph Machebeuf. (1927: 82):From the flat red sea of sand rose great rock mesas . . . resemblingvast cathedrals . . . the desert, the mountains and mesas, werecontinually re-formed and re-coloured by the cloud shadows. The wholecountry seemed fluid to the eye under this constant change of accent,this ever-varying distribution of light.In the extensive literature concerning the Anasazi - prehistoricpueblo - remains at Chaco Canyon, theories about the building boom fromc. AD 900 to the pueblo's abandonment around AD 1140 move betweentrade and ritual (Judge et al. 1991) with the sacred kivas - thepit-like structures common to Anasazi sites - playing a major role. CasaRinconada, the largest kiva kiva(kē`və), large, underground ceremonial chamber, peculiar to the ancient and modern Pueblo. The modern kiva probably evolved from the slab houses (i.e. at Chaco Canyon, is the focus forpresent-day ritual activity in a new use that most concerns the managersof the site, the US National Park Service (NPS NPS National Park ServiceNPS Naval Postgraduate SchoolNPS Net Promoter Score (customer management)NPS Non-Point Source pollutionNPS Native Plant SocietyNPS Norfolk Public Schools (Virginia)) and the Native AmericanIndians.Chaco Canyon was brought to broad notice by the explorations ofLieutenant James Simpson The name James Simpson can refer to: Cortlandt James Woore Simpson, 20th Century polar explorer Sir James Young Simpson, pioneer in use of chloroform as anaesthetic and doctor to Queen Victoria James Simpson, Canadian trade unionist and mayor of Toronto (1935) , an American military surveyor, in 1849, and ofRichard Wetherill, a trader who excavated with George Pepper on the HydeExploring Expedition from 1896 to 1899. It was taken into Federal carein 1907; the National Park Service officially established in 1916.The accommodation of visitorsThe Chaco Canyon Visitor Centre, begun in the 1960s, lies at the endof a 23-mile (35-km) dirt track from a main road; the reasons for thesite's attraction, according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the visitors' book, lie withits expansive setting. The earliest travellers to the site, in the1920s, came on horseback on the back of a horse; mounted or riding on a horse or horses; in the saddle.See also: Horseback or waggon, and were moved to write:'Beyond speech', 'Came for an hour, stayed two and a halfmonths', 'A lifetime is too short for Chaco', the lastcomment made in 1924, during the major archaeological excavation carriedout by Neil Judd Neil Merton Judd (1887–1976) was an American archaeologist who studied under pioneering archaeologist of the American Southwest Edgar Lee Hewett. He was curator of archaeology at the erstwhile United States National Museum, which later became part of the Smithsonian for the National Geographical Society.A 1991 Citibank visitor survey suggested visitors to American parks,such as Chaco Canyon, primarily went to see nature, then for vacation. Ayear later, the Vail Agenda, which considered the role of the park inAmerican society, saw a larger picture (US National Park Service 1992):The reasons people visit the national parks may be more cultural,sentimental, emotional than numbers suggest . . . the resources are notjust scenic; they are not just old and interesting; they are not merelymemorable. Nor is the [National Park] Service appropriately just aguardian or pleasant tour guide. There is meaning in these sites, theseecosystems, these historic events, these people and their culture.The NPS has carried out its own user-surveys. Of increasingimportance is how the modern needs of the visitor can be accommodatedwithin the existing practices of other 'official' users ofChaco Canyon, such as the American Pueblo Indians, who trace theirancestral history to the Chaco builders of 1000 years ago, and theNavajo, who erect hogans, raise livestock and continue to gathermedicinal herbs in the area. A number of Navajo work for the NPS atChaco Canyon, and I have been grateful for their help with my research.This 'special nature' of Chaco, as stated earlier, is notone which can be easily tested as an empirical concept. With that inmind, this discussion of the Harmonic Convergence is based on theaccounts of celebrants, those actively taking part in the ritual whopsewritings were gathered by one of the organizers, Charles Bensinger. Hesuggests his intuitive methods complement traditional means of gatheringinformation (Bensinger 1988):While advocating a primary intuitive approach for purpose of thisexperiment, I do not mean to discount the value of traditionalarchaeological methods . . . indeed any good archaeologist must employ astrongly intuitive sense if he or she is to be successful in findinganything.Beyond addressing visitor movement around a site of such continuingsensitivity as Chaco, the NPS now has to decide what to do with theartefacts left behind - not the common tourist detritus detritus/de��tri��tus/ (de-tri��tus) particulate matter produced by or remaining after the wearing away or disintegration of a substance or tissue. de��tri��tusn. pl. , but the objectsapparently placed in sincere votive vo��tive?adj.1. Given or dedicated in fulfillment of a vow or pledge: a votive offering.2. practices. In the main, these arethe activities of New Age followers, and it is in this context that Ihave examined the material in the 'alternative' ChacoCollection. I concentrated on artefacts relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accone event, theHarmonic Convergence, which is documented in Chaco journey, compiled byCharles Bensinger (1988; see above).The Harmonic Convergence as an event [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1OMITTED]The Harmonic Convergence, as a consequence of the lining-up ofplanets in the solar system, was popularized by a leading writer on NewAge subjects, Jose Arguelles. The author of popular works such as TheMayan factor: path beyond technology (1987), he encouraged gatheringsworld-wide, at sites popularly regarded as spiritually important. TheNPS acquiesced to a request for a celebration at Casa Rinconada. TheGreat Kiva of Chaco Canyon was deemed to continue its long reputation asa 'power base' by attracting thousands of visitors to the sitefor the Convergence. A similar, smaller celebration was held at anotherprehistoric site in NPS care, Mesa Verde, in Colorado. Charles Bensingerrecalls the Chaco Canyon event in the introduction to Chaco journey(1988: 88):Beginning at dawn on the 15th when more than 200 people gatheredthere to welcome the sun's first rays, a non-stop series of ritualscontinued for three days. White-turbaned Sikhs conducted meditationsaccompanied by crystal wands and giant gongs. Ethiopian drummers playedexotic rhythms that bounced across the canyon walls. Guitars and flutes,bells and bowls contributed to the joyful chorus.The Harmonic Convergence, which was celebrated worldwide, receivedconsiderable press interest. The Albuquerque Journal The Albuquerque Journal, also known as ABQ Journal, is the largest newspaper in New Mexico. It is published Monday through Saturday mornings as the Albuquerque Journal, and Sunday mornings as the Sunday Journal. of 16 August 1987,reporting 'rituals that mixed Native American culture, witchcraft,New Age spirituality, crystal power and a general good feeling about theworld', presents further data for contextualizing the material leftin Casa Rinconada. The celebrants are 'young, old, recycled flowerchildren, yuppies, punkers, tourists, hikers - people in wheelchairs, oncrutches, astride a��stride?adv.1. With a leg on each side: riding astride.2. With the legs wide apart.prep.1. On or over and with a leg on each side of.2. bikes and wearing every type of clothing werethere' [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]. And mention is made ofopponents 'handing out pamphlets urging celebrants to strive forfundamentalist-style salvation and trying to discourage some fromattending kiva ceremonies'.Leaving more than footprints: an antidote to modernity?The accounts give insights into the range of expectations, from joyat a coming together of people from different backgrounds in acommunitas of the kind suggested for pilgrims by anthropologists (Turner1969). What is also clear is the idea of continuation of a particularmood. Letters speak of renewed clarity of purpose, creativity and focus- 'four days that changed my very essence . . . my life has movedinto that place which understands instead of denies'. Participantsat the Harmonic Convergence, by these accounts, achieved a certainpersonal purpose, again in the manner of a pilgrimage to a site alreadyendowed with ritual symbolism. Nearly all the extracts include referenceto a changed state of mind - whether induced by mood or substance. Somewriters were disdainful dis��dain��ful?adj.Expressive of disdain; scornful and contemptuous. See Synonyms at proud.dis��dainful��ly adv. of people seen as on 'their Indian heritagetrip, complete with feathers and burning sagebrush . . . at somegatherings I attended I listened to ranting diatribes against the whiteman'. Another noted: 'I got an idea of why native peoples areopposed to cameras at their serious ceremonies . . . the machinesphysically encroached on me. Especially when I felt able to breakthrough into an alternate reality Alternate reality is usually a synonym for a Parallel universe. It may also refer to: Alternative universe (fan fiction), fiction by fan authors that deliberately alters facts of the canonical universe they're writing about. , the cameras intruded, violated mystate of mind'. Those contributing to Chaco journey are likely tohave made a purposeful journey to Chaco with an experience in mind. Theplacing of artefacts then signifies, 'I was there, takingpart'; and the burial of certain objects within the kiva may beinterpreted as a further desire to get beneath the skin - the soil - ofa sacred site. The archaeological evidence for crystals buried at ChacoCanyon, and the contemporary finds of crystals at Casa Rinconada inparticular, suggest the mythology has been developed to explain theprehistoric archaeology History is the study of the past using written records. Archaeology can also be used to study the past alongside history. Prehistoric archaeology is the study of the past before historical records began. . The continued act of crystal-burying, one ofthe most attested votive acts in the kiva, may be seen as myth-madematerial culture.The artefacts [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED]Any attempt at an empirical interpretation of the attraction of ChacoCanyon relies in the main on the wealth of archaeological sources -including the accounts of early archaeologists, such as Pepper and Judd- together with historical visitor records and NPS documentation.Background information for this research was gathered through interviewswith visitors to the site at a significant period - the Spring Equinox equinox(ē`kwĭnŏks), either of two points on the celestial sphere where the ecliptic and the celestial equator intersect. The vernal equinox, also known as "the first point of Aries," is the point at which the sun appears to cross the -and with members of the Zia Pueblo and Navajo communities and NPS teamat Chaco Canyon. Chaco journey, providing alternative accounts ofactivity at the site, linked into the modern material culture.The NPS, as an agency of the US government, follows a policy ofrespecting all religions; or no religions, until recently it only madedistinctions between archaeological and non-archaeological material inits formal collection policy. Crystals associated with New Age practiceswere commonly regarded as 'junk'; human-bone ash could only belegislated for as 'litter'. An increasing volume of artefacts,particularly since the late 1980s, has led to a reappraisal. PhilLoPiccolo - curator of the Chaco Collection, the original corpus ofarchaeological material - successfully argued for the collection of allartefacts; these are now regularly accessioned and catalogued into theChaco Collection at the University of New Mexico The University of New Mexico (UNM) is a public university in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It was founded in 1889. It also offers multiple bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degree programs in all areas of the arts, sciences, and engineering. in Albuquerque. Thecontemporary objects range from crystals and pot-sherds to elaboratecopies of Indian prayer-sticks and pouches of corn or tobacco. LoPiccolosuggests that he has a responsibility to collect these items for thefuture archaeological and ethnographical record. All the artefacts havebeen labelled and given acquisition numbers, with site details, andentered into a data-base. They may be classified as:1 Artefacts found by Park Rangers and kept for accessioning; thesetake their context from the place where they were found, which willoften be where the article was originally deposited.2 Artefacts found by visitors and handed in to the Parks Service(either to a ranger or at the Visitors' Centre); these will havelost part of their contextual information, knowledge of the preciseplace where found.3 Artefacts found in clearance, or other work at the site: includedin this category are items found during the digging-out of CasaRinconada after contamination by human-bone ash. These may becontexualized; a number of artefacts were found buried in the soil ofthe kiva.4 Artefacts left-over from archaeological excavation: e.g. oneturquoise bead from Pueblo Bonito, assumed to have been missed by theJudd team when it excavated there in the 1920s.5 Artefacts brought to the surface naturally: by soil movement,animal burrowing, heavy rain, etc.6 Artefacts returned to the National Park Service: by visitors with aconscience, often with a note of apology, generally anonymous, and withconcern voiced about the bad luck that had befallen them.According to the NPS, the increase in modern remains coincided withthe Harmonic Convergence of August 1987, and this is borne out byanalysis of the data-base relating to this special context. They may beclassified in the same manner as orthodox archaeological material: theright wing of a Blue Jay, found on the ground at Casa Rinconada, forexample, may be considered in terms of colour, type of offering, thespecies, the predominance of right wing over left, the bird's sexand the deposition site.The range of artefacts allows for imaginative interpretation. Fourmodern cast metal 'Dungeons and Dragons' role-playingfigurines associated with legends of Arthurian Britain show how Merlinand King Arthur have now become universal symbols of awestern-constructed past. Some objects - bundles of twigs or string -were found burned or charred, possibly indicating a role in contemporaryritual practice. In the early hours of the spring Equinox 1994, Iobserved a young German couple incorporate a native American Indianritual practice of burning sagebrush into a ceremony in Casa Rinconada[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED].The Harmonic Convergence group includes shells, polished stones, andprayer-sticks and other items styled on Native American Indian art;these are also regularly found at the site. Native American traditionalknowledge is a major strand in modern New Age knowledge, and its objectsare duly taken up. It is useful to draw on early archaeological records.Judd tells of a visit by John G. Bourke to the Hopi Indians of theSouthwest in 1881. Bourke observed a number of them wearing abalonependants (1884: 242): 'This, they told me, they obtained from theseashore, to which they had been in the habit, at least until recently,of making pilgrimages every four or five years'. Abalone, ormother-of-pearl, features three times in Harmonic Convergence material.Several pieces of turquoise also feature. Judd notes its enduringquality as a prized stone in Native American society, and thearchaeological excavations at Chaco Canyon have unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. severalthousand finds of beads, worked and unworked stone and artefacts (Pepper1909: 222-5). The Cerrillos mines south of Santa Fe are thought thelikely source of the Chacoan turquoise in archaeological context, andturquoise continues today to be a major source of tourist revenue forthe native American Indians. Latterday archaeologists, such as Judge(1983), have suggested Chaco Canyon became a high-status site throughthe production and control of a turquoise trade. Historic and recentexcavations have associated turquoise with shrine locations (H.WolcottToll 1987: 83; Pepper 1909).The problem of crystals [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]Then show I forth my longe crystal stones, Ycrammed full of cloutesand of nones; Relics they be, as weenen each one.CHAUCER The Pardoner's TaleThe high incidence of crystal finds at Chaco Canyon is significant.Crystal occurs in European Neolithic sites (Castleton 1992; Bradleypers. comm. 1995), and finds from medieval Ireland indicate its use inreliquaries (PRIA 1839: 326). Excavations at Chaco revealed evidence ofcrystals in an Anasazi context. Judd's account of the materialculture of Pueblo Bonito notes (1954: 289):While clearing blown sand from second storey room 6 we found on thefloor close to the northwest corner an artifact of porphyry Porphyry, Greek scholarPorphyry(pôr`fĭrē), c.232–c.304, Greek scholar and Neoplatonic philosopher. He studied rhetoric under Cassius Longinus and philosophy under Plotinus. or andesite andesiteAny member of a large family of rocks that occur in most of the world's volcanic areas, mainly as surface deposits and to a lesser extent as dikes and small plugs. ,planoconvex in cross section, and a quartz crystal with worn corners.From Pepper's enumeration 1. (mathematics) enumeration - A bijection with the natural numbers; a counted set.Compare well-ordered.2. (programming) enumeration - enumerated type. of the objects he recovered in this andneighbouring dwellings it is obvious that here one of the Old Bonitianreligious societies maintained its ancestral home, the recognisedstorage place for its altar paraphernalia.Of the new material, the grandest crystal collected from CasaRinconada is rose-pink quartz, associated with healing. Measuring 10inches across, its size suggests a deliberate and central votiveoffering. The distribution of crystals at Casa Rinconada follows apattern of placement for votive offerings; finds were most oftengathered from a 'central-place', the Central Firebox of thekiva. In all, the Harmonic Convergence material includes 12 items ofcrystal. One, quartz crystal and herbs in a tied bundle of printed redcloth, was found in a wall niche. Some of the crystals, groupedtogether, are assumed to have been one deposit, for example the 14 cutquartz crystals buried below the surface of the Central Firebox. Anothercollection of 10 cut quartz crystals was found together on the floor ofthe Central Firebox, in the same quadrant. Nearly all of the examplesare of cut or processed quartz stones; one rose quartz pebble, polished,was found on the floor surface. One unidentified crystal, possiblysmithsonite smith��son��ite?n.A mineral, ZnCO3, sometimes used as a source of zinc.[After James Smithson.] , was found in the same place. Another is a slightly oval,clear quartz crystal with bevelled edges. Other attractive stones wereoffered, such as mica fragments and quartzite quartzite,usually metamorphic rock composed of firmly cemented quartz grains. Most often it is white, light gray, yellowish, or light brown, but is sometimes colored blue, green, purple, or black by included minerals. pebbles.The quartz is non-local; whether archaeological or modern votiveofferings, it will have been brought to the site. In the earliestperiod, it is likely to have been traded in, and given exotic status. Inthe contemporary world, quartz and other crystals can be bought at manyNew Age shops in Santa Fe, New Mexico. One cannot assume that thecrystals were originally bought as 'mystic' items: manydealers sell crystals to amateur lapidarists.'Crystals bridge the gap between science and magic', notesNeil Irwin (1991: 11) in a self-help guide to understanding crystalhealing. Forging this link further, Irwin states: 'Quartz crystalis the base component of the silicon chip . . . responsible for themiracle of modern communication and technology . . . it is this abilityof crystal to receive, store and transmit the solar lifeforce that makesit such a versatile tool in healing.' Natasha Peterson'sSacred sites (1988), which appears geared to those visiting places suchas Chaco Canyon, suggests a sacred site's energy should beharnessed to 'clear away energy blocks that may be holding youback. You can use it to do some creative visualisation, crystalmeditations, healing or prayer.' An entry in Chaco journey reads:A throng lay or sat about the fire circle in silence. Some shiveredin the cold before dawn. A woman drummed. Donna was building an altar ofbone and crystal . . . Donna began to speak of ancient crystal andbasalt basalt(bəsôlt`, băs`ôlt), fine-grained rock of volcanic origin, dark gray, dark green, brown, reddish, or black in color. Basalt is an igneous rock, i.e., one that has congealed from a molten state. , and archaic times . . . then Lin bestrode be��stride?tr.v. be��strode , be��strid��den , be��strid��ing, be��strides1. To sit or stand on with the legs astride; straddle.2. the altar of bone andcrystal, and within it lay a great crystal the colour of red ochre. Sheclashed together two great thighbones. On the second blow one thigh-boneshattered . . .Park Rangers at Chaco Canyon know that crystal-related activity atthe site is widespread. One Park Ranger noted the occasional theft ofcrystals, particularly from New Age visitors who had left them to gathervibrations.In the many years preceding LoPiccolo's decision to putcontemporary artefacts into the collection items will have been lost tothe record through further appropriation or the overgrowing of nativeareas; they may have rotted or blown away, if perishable; or they maymerely have been overlooked as significant artefacts. A visitorcommented (Casa Rinconada, March 1994):It's fascinating to collect the stuff and document the site . .. and find out why people leave it . . . it's interesting to findwhy a particular spot attracts.The continued use of Chaco as a reverential rev��er��en��tial?adj.1. Expressing reverence; reverent.2. Inspiring reverence.rev site, and one ofpilgrimage, can only be deduced from the archaeological record; thecollection of modern 'votive' offerings would appear to offera sociological way of interpreting the continuing use of the site.Chaco's archaeologist, Dabney Ford, is open-minded towards thecollection of artefacts. While noting that modern items can confuse thearchaeology of the site, they do present a new context. In 1991, Fordand her team found crystals and cloth fragments (possibly from a votivebundle) in some of the Chaco Canyon rooms excavated in the 1960s. Thesewere kept to suggest a range of data. 'We can see this as acultural continuation . . . if a native American had left things wewould probably keep that as an ethnographical collection . . . so whyshould we think those [native] objects more "valuable"?'Neil Judd's account of the 1920s excavation at Chaco Canyonshows an early regard for the relative values of ritual objects,suggesting that materials with no obvious use had other functions of amore esoteric nature. Specially shaped stone, concretions and pieces ofwood took on a value when regarded as votive objects. This has a bearingon the interpretation of the modern artefacts in the Chaco Collection:in whose eyes are the New Age materials 'junk' and how arethey so defined? Pioneering American work on material culture, such asWilliam Rathje's garbage project (1974), discussed the relative'value' of a discarded artefact See artifact. . While Michael Schiffer (1976:12) warned that the archaeological record was 'a distorted recordof a past behavioral system', he saw a predictability for discardand loss related to a social system. Post-processualists continue tohighlight the myriad decision-making processes at work in engaging ourobjects with our environment. But given the interpretative range of'modern' artefacts at Chaco Canyon, can a system be applied toassociate artefacts with behaviour in the manner of medieval shrines(Geary 1987) or Christian pilgrimage (Stopford 1994)? That is, can theartefacts necessarily be directly related to behaviour?The National Park Service and legislationBefore the issue of New Age material at sites such as Chaco Canyon,legislation prompted consideration of the various ways in which anhistoric landscape, is used, namely the National Historic PreservationAct (NHPA NHPA,n.pr See Nurse Healer's Professional Association. ) of 1966 and the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978(AIRFA AIRFA American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 ). In 1988 the Resource Management Plan for Chaco Culture NationalHistorical Park Chaco Culture National Historical Park:see National Parks and Monuments (table). Chaco Culture National Historical ParkNational preserve, northwestern New Mexico, U.S. addressed the issue of Native American use of parkresources, and proposed a special regulation concerning the continuedmedico-religious practices by Navajo and Pueblo Indians. The land,fenced for nearly 50 years and protected from grazing, is regarded as areservoir for medically useful plants that are scarce in the surroundingareas. Contemporary native American practice, rock art and finds ofprehistoric and historic prayer sticks attest to the importance of thesite for healing ceremonies. The NPS, concerned about the possibleimpact on rare, threatened or endangered species endangered species,any plant or animal species whose ability to survive and reproduce has been jeopardized by human activities. In 1999 the U.S. government, in accordance with the U.S. , suggested thesetting-up of a study group in consultation with Navajo, Acoma and otherPueblo and Hopi religious leaders.With regard to the discussion of materials left at the site, the NPSinsists it is actively seeking a harmonious relationship with thetraditional - the native American Indian users - in the light of anincrease in New Age activity, particularly at Casa Rinconada. In 1991the question of special permit use - particularly for ritual activity -was raised in a report to the US Department of the Interior. It notesthat the activity under debate must not grant, or give the appearance ofgranting, exclusive use of a portion of the park for the activities ofthe few and, as LoPiccolo often reminded me, the NPS must recognize allreligions or none at all, because of the US Federal separation of churchand state See also: . Separation of church and state is a political and legal doctrine which states that government and religious institutions are to be kept separate and independent of one another. . A state agency is therefore unable to prefer one religiousclaim over another.Another report - 'Laws protecting cultural resources andgoverning religious practices in Chaco Canyon National HistoricalPark' (21 May 1993) - questions whether it is permissible to closeparticular areas of the Park, such as Casa Rinconada, in order toaccommodate the religious concerns of the Pueblo Indians (who would likethe kiva to be closed to all but their own people) or of a non-Indiangroup that views the canyon as a sacred site. The same report wasconcerned about 'resource disturbance' through burying ofcrystals and other paraphernalia: 'This has to be stipulatedagainst . . . Also the sheer quantity of such requests by practitionersof "New Age" beliefs may become burdensome.' NativeAmerican Indians are unhappy about other religious practices, inparticular the leaving of artefacts and disposal of human-bone ash,especially offensive to the Navajo. A spokesman for the Zia Pueblo was,in conversation, firm in his conviction that the site should be shut offto non-Zia, seeing no reason why he should have to justify hispeople's belief system, essentially a private issue. The questionarises as to whether Chaco Canyon is a national possession, in the handsof a national agency of the United States, and should be freelyavailable to any US citizens who treat it well; is it, more broadly,part of the cultural heritage of all people, at a geographic place whichsets it within a nation-state; or should it be regarded as theparticular possession of the descendants, biological and/or cultural, ofits makers, who may choose to share it with others but have the right tokeep it for themselves? And if the descent is complex or unknown, whoare the proper descendants?Since the completion of this research at Chaco Canyon, the NationalPark Service has closed off Casa Rinconada to the public. Officially,the step was taken last July to protect the site archaeologically, butthose making the decision were also taking heed of the feelings ofNative American Indians.A spokesman for the Zia pueblo, when interviewed by the author in1994, said that closure was not an ideal solution, but one which the NPSwould be forced to adopt if visitors were disrespectful dis��re��spect��ful?adj.Having or exhibiting a lack of respect; rude and discourteous.disre��spect . 'Wedon't have a problem with what people believe', he said.'If they want to go to Casa Rinconada, if they want to go to any ofthe kivas over there with an open mind and open heart, then they can.They can sit there [. . .] You know the religious significance. You canfeel it. To me that's the ultimate feeling, ultimate prayer, butnot to go leaving things behind. Anything that's foreign to thestructure of the building is just going to do harm to the gods.'ConclusionThe frequency of names and testimonials in the visitors' book atChaco Canyon suggests a correlation between increased visitor activityat the site and the period of, and after, the Vietnam War Vietnam War,conflict in Southeast Asia, primarily fought in South Vietnam between government forces aided by the United States and guerrilla forces aided by North Vietnam. . The work ofthe NPS is significant here. Some 30,000 'mementos' have beenleft at the National Vietnam War Memorial in Washington (DC) since itwas completed in 1982. In a recent book, Offerings at the wall:artefacts from the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Vietnam Veterans Memorial,war memorial in Washington, D.C., built 1982. Designed by the American sculptor and architect Maya Ying Lin, it is a sloping, V-shaped, 493-ft (150-m) wall of highly polished black granite that descends 10 feet (3. Collection (noticed inAntiquity 70 (1996): 192), Thomas B. Allen notes the Park Rangerscharged with picking up the roses, teddy bears and dog tags did not knowwhat to do with them: 'But an awareness grew that there wassomething sacred about these objects . . . Everyone who touched [them]at the Wall knew they had to be kept . . . forever' (1995: 5). BobSonderman, Senior Staff Archaeologist for the NPS, discussing theaccessioning of the items on to a data-base, notes: 'The wayobjects are being catalogued, with their etched poems and accompanyingletters or testimonials, future archaeologists will be able toinvestigate the emotional side of war.'The Vietnam War Memorial is a modern place of our own - that is,20th-century - culture; has Casa Rinconada instead been'appropriated'? This essay raises the issue of'authentic' use of an ancient site, and asks whether it ispossible to discriminate one use as more worthy than another. Thosewithin the Native American communities argue their right throughinheritance or continued use. How might the more recent 20th-centuryvisitors, such as New Age followers, claim their right? Is their use,for ritual purposes, an expression of care and understanding? Or does itmark a lack of consideration for earlier claims on the site? Is it thesite that is really the issue - or the significance of the landscape inwhich it sits?The issues raised here are complementary to work by archaeologists inthe management of prehistoric landscapes, such as Bender (1993) andChippindale et al. (1990) in respect of Stonehenge, a site for whichEnglish Heritage has no collection policy regarding New Age material.Increasingly, archaeologists are involved not only in the interpretationof sites prehistorically, but how they are used in a modern, orpost-modern, age. I have shown the artefacts associated with such usesare problematic. What should be classified as 'junk' and howwe deal with it at a time of broader acceptance of 'other'practices are issues that archaeologists and those involved in heritagemanagement should, I suggest, be considering.Acknowledgements. This essay is based on research carried out1994-95, for my Archaeology and Anthropology undergraduate dissertationat the University of Oxford.I am most grateful for the help and hospitality of the National ParkService at Chaco Canyon and the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque.In particular, I would like to thank Phil and Bertie LoPiccolo,Christian Lejeune, Dabney Ford and the Park Rangers at Chaco CanyonNational Historical Park and, not least, the Chaco Canyon visitors andthe American Indian Pueblo and Navajo peoples who shared their time andthoughts with me. I also appreciate the comments of Dr Howard Morphy andDr Chris Gosden at the University of Oxford.ReferencesAlbuquerque Journal. 1987. 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