Wartime housings as cultural landscape, national creation and personal creativity.

Wartime housings as cultural landscape, national creation and personal creativity. Abstract: Early in the 1940s, in response to a housing crisis compounded oflack of construction during the depression, rural to urban migration,and the relocation of labour to the burgeoning wartime industries,dockyards and military bases, the federal government assumedresponsibility for the provision of worker housing throughout thecountry. Construction was initiated through the newlycreated crowncorporation Wartime Housing Ltd. After some 26,000 rental dwellings werebuilt across the country, the program evolved into veterans'housing. A narrow range of designs (four basic plans) was employed,leading to a image of uniformity, conformity and repetition. Adistinctive Canadian residential landscape was thus created, along witha common housing experience. As these dwellings were sold into privatehands following the war, modifications were introduced which wereintegrated into the original simple designs. The appearance of thesurviving wartime housing landscapes is nuanced by regionalcharacteristics, but the character of the core units is often stillapparent. Authority-based, rational, central planning, a feature ofCanada's wartime effort, provided the country with a core stock ofdwellings. In half a century a distinctive Canadian residentiallandscape has evolved from this, with diversity introduced as a resultof individual taste, ability to pay, and local regulation. Resume: Au debut des annees 1940, le gouvernement federal dut faire face aune crise du logement aggravee par la penurie de nouvelles constructionsresultant de la Depression, la migration des habitants Habitants is the name used to refer to both the French settlers and the America-born inhabitants of French origin who farmed the land along the two shores of the St. Lawrence waterway in what is the present-day Province of Quebec in Canada. des campagnesvers versabbr.versed sine les villes et le deplacement de la main d'oeuvre versl'industrie de guerre naissante, les chantiers navals et les basesmilitaires. Il se chargea donc d'assurer le logement des travailleurs partout au pays. Le coup d'envoi fut donne par unenouvelle societe de la Couronne, la <<Wartime HousingLtd.>>. Cette societe, apres avoir construit 26 000 logements atravers le pays, fut convertie en programme de constructiond'habitations pour les veterans. Il resulta de la gamme restreintede modeles utilises (quatre plans de base) une image repetitive teinteed'uniformite et de conformisme a l'origine d'un paysageresidentiel canadien distinctif et d'une experience collective surle plan du logement. Lorsque ces habitations furent cedees a desparticuliers apres la guerre, ceux-ci modifierent les modeles simples dedepart. L'aspect des ensembles architecturaux constitues deslogements de guerre restants est attenue par les particularitesregionales, mais le caractere particulier des unites de base est encoresouvent visible. Cette planification rationnelle, centrale et emanantdirectement des autorites a caracterise l'effort de guerre duCanada. Elle a fournit au pays un parc d'habitations a partirduquel le paysage residentiel canadien a evolue depuis un demi-siecle ets'est diversite selon les gouts individuels, la capacite de payeret les reglements locaux. Housing, Cultural Landscape and Federal Intervention Federal intervention (Spanish: Intervenci��n federal) is an attribution of the federal government of Argentina, by which it takes control of a province in certain extreme cases. Intervention is declared by the President with the assent of the National Congress. Over half a century has passed since the federal government, incooperation with cities and municipalities across the land, and inresponse to the exigencies of war, assumed the burden of providingrental housing for Canada's industrializing population. Reluctantat first to make the commitment and take up the challenge, it built some26,000 single family dwellings and numerous staff houses before thewartime housing program was brought to a close at war's end. In theprocess, problems of town and social planning were also engaged, and newstandards were set for building construction in the years that followed.A new course of direct government involvement in the every day lives ofcitizens was thus charted, through a substantial contribution to thehousing stock and in the creation of new residential landscapes. This essay explores the wartime housing landscape as an expressionof national government activity and the personal engagement of citizens-- those who took up dwellings built under the wartime legislation andwho subsequently purchased the houses and continued to (re)develop them.While national policy and nationally sponsored construction together areidentified as the point of creation of this distinctive landscape, whathas happened to this housing in more recent decades demonstrates theneeds and inventiveness of citizens in creating and managing theirdomestic spaces. The result, seen collectively, is a modified housinglandscape whose nuanced forms tend towards regional styles. This isshown in specific cases of dwelling modification on the west coast, andillustrates the dichotomy between the authority-based impetus torational planning of the landscapes of human habitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas and incrementaldevelopment according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the interests of individuals. In this process,from the creation of the dwellings through later modifications andadjustment, wartime housing was changed from a relatively simple andprosaic landscape, the expression of nationally applied standards andregulations, to one that is increasingly variegated and textured,reflecting personal taste, financial capability and local regulation. No Canadian landscape of national scale can be directly apprehendedby the individual, and all discussion of landscapes at such scaleconcerns generalizations constructed for the purpose of understandingthe national scene. But generalizations are necessarily rooted inspecific cases. In a review of the concept `landscape' Mikesellnotes Carl Sauer's attempt to place it at the centre ofgeographical enquiry. Assuming an inductive inductive1. eliciting a reaction within an organism.2.inductive heatinga form of radiofrequency hyperthermia that selectively heats muscle, blood and proteinaceous tissue, sparing fat and air-containing tissues. approach, "... Sauerheld that a landscape should not be regarded as an actual scene viewedby a particular observer but rather as a generalization derived from theobservation of many individual scenes." (1) Thus the landscape ofgeographical interest is to be distinguished from that of the painter orothers concerned with the immediate range of visual perception andapprehension. In authorizing the building of dwellings, literally one byone across the face of the land, the government put into place theelements of shelter that collectively would form not only distinctivehousing but also a distinctive residential landscape. Future, in termsof human experience, the dwelling units would become the homes ofthousands of families. Thus government action met directly with that ofindividual households at the most intimate level; a national experiencewas thereby created, as expressed in a new cultural landscape. Early in the 1940s the government's attitude towards thesupply of housing shifted from a free-market stance to an essentiallysocial housing position, insofar in��so��far?adv.To such an extent.Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice as wartime industrial workers wereconcerned. Once a centralized administration was established, within theframework of the crown corporation Wartime Housing Ltd., the governmentnot only had the ability to assist municipalities in providing housingbut also the responsibility to ensure that its approach was equitable.With major shifts in population distribution taking place, occasionedlargely by the growth of wartime industrial production and militaryconcentrations, the whole national settlement system was brought intoview. By its allocation of housing the government gave to each recipientmunicipality a set of structures that, collectively and individually,came to be recognized as a distinctive form of Canadian housing. (2) Housing at the beginning of World War II was highly variable inquality and availability. For many in the lower income brackets it waspoor indeed. (3) New construction had plummeted during the early 1930s,rising only towards the end of the decade, and neglect of the existingstock had led to its deterioration. During that time the populationcontinued to increase, and, just as importantly for housingavailability, had redistributed itself in response to major crises suchas the collapse of markets and the dessication of the western wheatlands. Overcrowding overcrowdingovercrowding of animal accommodation. Many countries now publish codes of practice which define what the appropriate volumetric allowances should be for each species of animal when they are housed indoors. Breaches of these codes is overcrowding. , whether due to doubling-up or simply inadequatespace in individual dwellings, became severe in most major centres. Inwhat was a period of rapid rural to urban movement, the impact ofovercrowding was increasingly felt in central cities, and slumdevelopments also appeared on the rural-urban fringes of major centres.(4) To all of this were added the conditions engendered by the onset ofwar, including the relocation of workers and families to centres ofindustrial development and the vicinities of military bases. It followsthat to find adequate housing in wartime Canada was one of the mostdifficult problems encountered by thousands of households caught up inthe industrial and military effort of the time. Those difficulties of housing provision followed the depressiondecade in which little had been done to alleviate an already seriousproblem. The first comprehensive national legislation, the DominionHousing Act, was passed in 1935 and was followed by the National HousingAct of 1938. Predicated upon an approach that emphasized the purchase ofnew homes by the middle classes, thus releasing older housing forrental, and with time-limited stipulations as to co-operation withmunicipalities and provinces, these acts proved to be completelyineffective in relieving the shortage of rental housing before theoutbreak of war. Further, they contained no forethought fore��thought?n.1. Deliberation, consideration, or planning beforehand.2. Preparation or thought for the future. See Synonyms at prudence. for theexacerbated housing shortages that would develop as a consequence ofCanada's war effort. The outbreak of war brought the housing crisiseven more strongly to the fore. Workers moving to jobs in the burgeoningwartime industries had to be housed, but often there was little housingavailable within the vicinities of the industries or docks where theywere to work. "Munitions mu��ni��tion?n.War materiel, especially weapons and ammunition. Often used in the plural.tr.v. mu��ni��tioned, mu��ni��tion��ing, mu��ni��tionsTo supply with munitions. makers surveyed by the federal governmentreplied that they were worried `not about tools, not about plant, butabout housing ...' Skilled male workers refused to move to citieswhere the housing shortage would mean separation from theirfamilies." (5) Not only was the country inadequately housed as it entered the war,but it was initially hesitant about federal involvement to correct thesituation. (6) As the new decade opened, the relocation of labour andpersonnel in response to the war effort resulted in housing emergenciesacross the country. It became clear that the construction industry couldnot by itself cope with the enormous and increasing task of housing theworkers and their families, much as the private sector approach mighthave been preferred by the government and its advisers. The ability tonegotiate with financial institutions, and to develop priorities for thecontrol of materials during a period of shortages and wartimeallocations to industry, could only be handled at the federal level ofgovernment. Deep differences of opinion about state involvement weremasked for the moment when, acting at last to provide the much-neededhousing, the government responded on an unprecedented scale. In light ofthe depression experience and the government's earlier reluctanceto act, it was paradoxical that the state was now to become theprincipal actor in housing development across the country. The instrument of this new government activity was Wartime HousingLtd., a crown corporation created under the authority of the WarMeasures Act The War Measures Act (enacted in August 1914, replaced by the Emergencies Act in 1988) was a Canadian statute that allowed the government to assume sweeping emergency powers. in February 1941. (7) Thus housing construction formed apart of wartime production and scheduling, the corporation being placedwithin the Department of Munitions and Supply, under the Minister, theHonourable C.D. Howe. The government chose for its Board of Directorsmen with experience in the construction field, including Joseph M.Pigott, a Hamilton construction magnate, as President. Such a prominentappointment gave to Wartime Housing both high profile and businessdistinction. The corporation had its headquarters in Ottawa althoughmuch of its senior management was based in Toronto. Other offices wereopened in the principal regional centres. Design requirements, contractnegotiations, financial dealings, the organization of materials,provision of utilities, collection of rents, tenant and projectmanagement, and the ability to deal with local municipal governments-all these and more were matters requiring the appointment of skilledpeople across the country. The corporation built up an impressivenational organization and corps of employees. When the war finally cameto an end, considerable experience had been gained in the handling of anational housing program, complemented by town planning town planning:see city planning. experiments. Cultural Landscapes: Fact and Perception Government involvement was justified by assuming and asserting thatthe housing effort would be short-lived and the houses themselvestemporary. But the scale of participation, mainly in housingconstruction but also in town and social planning, marked the wartimeperiod as a key turning point in the evolution of housing policy. Atlast taking a national view of the problem, and direct action, Canadatook its place alongside other western nations that were involved withissues of housing policy and provision. In discharging its mandate the corporation not only hewed toalready established standards of property development in lot servicing,quality of materials and design of neighbourhoods and buildings, but italso experimented with alternative approaches. Insofar as housing wasconcerned, the designs chosen were few: the Cape Cod Cape Cod,narrow peninsula of glacial origin, 399 sq mi (1,033 sq km), SE Mass., extending 65 mi (105 km) E and N into the Atlantic Ocean. It is generally flat, with sand dunes, low hills, and numerous lakes. design, inside-gabled single storey and one-and-a-half storey versions, and ahip-roofed cottage less commonly used. The narrow range of housingdesigns, and the built forms that resulted, imposed an image ofuniformity and conformity. The distinctive shapes and spacing of thedwellings cast a clearly identifiable and repetitive image across theland, an image that has united rather than scattered the Canadianexperience (Figures 1, 2). The wartime house became "... almost asidentifiable to Canadians as the grain elevator grain elevatorStorage building for grain, usually a tall frame, metal, or concrete structure with a compartmented interior; also, the device for loading grain into a building. ..." -- a majorimage of comparison, if regional rather than national. (8) Further,these "... standard ... houses created a distinctive `CanadianHouse' which can still be found from coast to coast". (9)Indeed, it has been suggested that "The quint-essential Canadianhome is perhaps the `Type C' unit, a storey-and-a-half model usedacross Canada Across Canada was an afternoon program that formerly aired on The Weather Network. The segment ran from early 1999 until mid 2002. The show ran from 3:00PM ET until 7:00 PM ET. by WHL WHL Western Hockey LeagueWHL WheelWHL World Hypertension LeagueWHL Westland Helicopters LimitedWHL Western Hemlock LooperWHL Width, Height, Length in the period 1941-5, in the Veterans' RentalHousing program after the War, and by the early NHA NHA Nha Trang, Vietnam (airport code)NHA Nantucket Historical AssociationNHA National Hydrogen AssociationNHA National Health AccountsNHA National Housing Act (Canada)NHA National Humanities Alliance builders." (10) Design uniformity, however, was perhaps a necessary concomitant offinancial restraint. Wartime Housing engaged local architects to presentdrawings which, while following the basic design concept, couldintroduce small modifications to suit local conditions, provided thatthe cost of construction remained within prescribed limits. In thisthere was an implicit admission that the voice of the locality might beheard. On the prairies there was concern that insulating propertieswould be adequate, and elsewhere there was variation in how a woodshed wood��shed?n.A shed in which firewood is stored.intr.v. wood��shed��ded, wood��shed��ding, wood��sheds SlangTo practice on a musical instrument.Noun 1. might be incorporated into the main structure. More generally,experiments were conducted with methods of pre-fabrication. Towards theend of the war, when it was realized that the houses would not be quiteas temporary as had earlier been assumed, certain changes such asimproved footings were permitted. In general, the quality improved overtime, especially as the corporation turned to the construction of housesfor returning veterans. But the fundamental concept of the house typesand forms did not alter from the basic nearly-square plan, comprisingsome 700 square feet on the main floor, and divided into living room,dining area, bedroom, kitchen and bathroom. In addition to the distinctive design and appearance of individualdwellings, to be noted from coast to coast, the locating of housingschemes near industrial sites suggested national purpose, and rules ofaccess to the housing, namely qualification by occupational category,military service and need, pointed to a social order within a nationalframework. The rules were the same for everyone. Just as fundamentally,and because the intimacy of domestic life was being provided for, theconceptualizations of space identity and differentiation within thedwelling, and within neighbourhoods, focused attention on basic shelterand community needs. These needs, projected into the design process,were met by the same basic approaches of planning, building andallocation, regardless of locality. Thus the very townscapes thatWartime Housing created suggested to the citizen in the street a sharedidentity from coast to coast; this was indeed a unifying culturallandscape, and to many a gratifying grat��i��fy?tr.v. grat��i��fied, grat��i��fy��ing, grat��i��fies1. To please or satisfy: His achievement gratified his father.See Synonyms at please.2. one. With thousands of dwellings having been built across the countrywithin a few short years to a common basic design and standard offinish, and with the activity having been conceived and administeredfrom a centralized crown authority, the citizens of Canada literallycame to share a common housing experience. The evidence of newspaperreports and of letters surviving in archives also suggest a degree ofapproval of this experience. Those who needed housing, and werefortunate enough to qualify for a wartime house, were pleased; otherspleaded for assistance, and would have been overjoyed had they beenallocated a place (Figure 3, 4). Tenants and would-be tenants, however,were only the most obvious citizens to share the wartime housingexperience. Citizens in general were involved through the application oftaxes to this purpose, and in watching the impact on their communitiesas the dwellings were erected and neighbourhoods created. While itobviously must have been good to see people housed in decent shelter,one of the reactions in the property-owning and comparativelywell-housed portion of the wider community was that wartime houses wouldhave a depressing effect on the value of surrounding properties. Theinhabitants of the new houses, after all, were `only tenants'. Inshort, opinions expressed in certain sectors of society were to theeffect that these houses belonged "on the other side of thetracks'. (11) This was accompanied by a corresponding wish that thedwellings be considered temporary, and be demolished or removed asquickly as possible after the war, an attitude conforming to earlystatements by the government, when it had been politically necessary tojustify the construction of wartime houses in terms of their temporarycharacter. Indeed, if one of the arguments for producing houses byprefabricated pre��fab��ri��cate?tr.v. pre��fab��ri��cat��ed, pre��fab��ri��cat��ing, pre��fab��ri��cates1. To manufacture (a building or section of a building, for example) in advance, especially in standard sections that can be easily shipped and methods was to ensure "... speed of erection...", the corollary was that this meant speed of dismantling"... and possible salvage value Salvage ValueThe estimated value that an asset will realize upon its sale at the end of its useful life.Notes:For example, the value of a computer after it depreciates over the number of years specified by the IRS. ". (12) To a degree the potential social problems could be overcome throughsensitive planning processes. Negotiations with municipalities requiredthat serviced lots be made available to Wartime Housing Ltd at a nominalfee of $1.00 each. If such lots could not be made available, furthernegotiations took place to come to an agreement whereby servicing mightbe installed as part of the construction work. In addition to wholeclusters of lots being offered, municipalities also promoted the infillof empty lots within the already built-up residential districts. Thisnot only assisted in making serviced lots available but it easedproblems of access to schools and other facilities, thus partly avoidingthe disapproving perception that lower class rental districts were beingcreated en masse en masse?adv.In one group or body; all together: The protesters marched en masse to the capitol.[French : en, in + masse, mass. . Wartime Housing was sufficiently aware of potentialsocial problems in certain districts that its officials, sometimes withon-site visits, took pains to satisfy themselves as to the suitabilityof locations; further, community development was fostered in a varietyof ways, especially where large scale schemes were sponsored. Thushousing, social status, location and community formation were intimatelyrelated, and were taken into account in the overall planning process.With the construction of community halls, schools and other facilities,and the fostering of various programs, the work took on proportions andqualities well beyond the mere building of dwelling units. "Keeping to the Marketplace": (13) Impetus to Divergence Regardless of the need for low rental housing, and the persuasivearguments for direct government intervention to provide it, there wouldappear to be a strong and persistent undercurrent of opinion throughoutsociety, even in sectors that might be expected to benefit from directgovernment assistance in the rental market, that home ownership ispreferable to renting, and worth some sacrifice to achieve. In the 1940ssuch sentiment was strong. Thus, when the war was over and thegovernment discontinued the wartime housing program, reverting toindirect methods of trying to stimulate private sector participation,some citizens may have been disappointed but others were delighted.Among the latter may be counted the thousands of tenants who wereoffered first refusal to purchase the wartime houses they had beenrenting. From the allocation of a house at a modest rental to anopportunity for a modestly priced purchase was, for many, a progressionthat represented rapid social advance -- and an unimaginably good deal.Many had never owned a home before and this provided them with theirfirst chance to accumulate equity and capital as well as maintainhousing security. Within a few short years, through the late 1940s tothe early 1950s, virtually the whole stock of wartime houses was soldinto private hands. The implications were profound. The sale of the houses gave rise toa new class of home owners across the country which would from thatmoment have property protection in mind in their community relations 1. The relationship between military and civilian communities.2. Those public affairs programs that address issues of interest to the general public, business, academia, veterans, Service organizations, military-related associations, and other non-news media entities. .And it put the initiative for property development and redevelopmentinto the hands of the owners who now had to deal individually withlending institutions and local authorities, opening the way to thedevelopment of regional variation in the housing stock based upon localassessments of the real estate market and local building practices. (14)The result is that, from the late 1940s and early 1950s down to thepresent, the tracts of wartime housing have evolved into variegatedtownscapes, `wartime' in origin and residual core forms, butincreasingly divergent from such beginnings. Since then, the needs,wishes and tastes of individual owners have found expression in athousand ways, some changes to the dwellings being of considerablescope, some being of tiny detail and cosmetic effect, and othersexpressing only maintenance activity. The individualization individualization,n the process of tailoring remedies or treatments to cure a set of symptoms in an indiv-idual instead of basing treatment on the common features of the disease. of houseswithin highly similar schemes of wartime housing has increasinglydiversified the townscapes. Through it all the basic wartime house hasremained distinctive. Working with the Landscapes of Home Structural changes generally have involved adding new space toexisting dwellings. Such changes have sometimes been so extensive thatthe original house has been completely effaced in the makeover. Whileretrospectively it is easy to point back in time and process to the coreforms of wartime houses, it is much more difficult to imagine the manyways in which dwellings have been, or might be, personalized. Possiblythe most important general modification was the addition of basements,but beyond this the ways in which rooms have been added or extended havebeen many. Properties have commonly been developed by the constructionof garages, an outbuilding outbuildingn. a structure not connected with the primary residence on a parcel of property. This may include a shed, garage, barn, cabana, pool house, or cottage. not at first permitted. To the extent thatsuch changes (along with wholesale removal and replacement of houses,more common in recent years) were authorized by permits from localmunicipal building departments, they have been constrained and shaped bylocal regulations. But changes have also been inspired by fashions inhousing and, perhaps most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , have been driven by the needs ofgrowing families. Both fashion and the need for increased personal spacecan be thought of as forms of constraint, but would normally be taken tosuggest possibilities, opportunities and reasons for propertydevelopment. (15) Increased income during the decades following the warhas provided the financial ability to make improvements, and theinvestment of personal labour has been common too. Through all thesechanges, local and regional forms and images have been reasserted andfurther developed, building on the common module of the wartime house.(16) In early September, 1941, Wartime Housing Ltd. was issued a numberof permits by the City of North Vancouver North Vancouver,city (1991 pop. 38,436), SW British Columbia, Canada, on Burrard Inlet of the Strait of Georgia, opposite Vancouver, of which it is a suburb. Shipbuilding, woodworking, and the shipping of grain, lumber, and ore are the chief industries. to construct single familydwellings on properties lying on the east side of the city withinwalking distance of the dockyards. Two dwellings are discussed here,representing the general processes of initial development by WartimeHousing and subsequent modification by their later owners. The casescomprise the H-12 and H-22 house sub-types, code designations for two ofthe standard designs that had been adopted, the latter having only asingle floor level, the former having one and one-half storeys (17)(Figure 5). The process of building was similar in both cases, the maindifferences between the houses being in size, floor layout and cost.Both were 24 feet by 28 feet and erected upon concrete blocks. (Someearly H-1 houses, the smallest and most basic, had been built on posts,emphasizing the expectation that they would be temporary.) The mainfloors of the two types, though identical in area, differed in layoutand accommodation. Both had a kitchen and bathroom, but the H-12 layoutlost floor space to a centrally-located enclosed stair that descended toface the front door. While the general intention for H-12 houses wasthat there would be two small bedrooms on the main floor, as well as aliving room and dining area, in this case only one bedroom seems to havebeen constructed, allowing greater freedom of movement in the mainpublic living and eating spaces. The stairs led to a small landing onthe second floor, to gain access to two bedrooms, one on either sidewith one being larger than the other. The H-22 house, by not having anupstairs, saved the staircase-equivalent floor area on the main floor.This extra space helped to provide a comfortably large living room, some16 feet square, reduced only by a small partitioned area separating thefront door from direct entry into the room. The cost of construction wasset at $2,080.00 for the H-12 house and $1,737.20 for the H-22. The building permits were issued only two days apart and, right onschedule, two days apart later in the month, plumbing permits were alsoissued. Fixtures were to be identical in the two houses, comprising asewer connection, one kitchen sink, a bathtub and basin in the bathroom,along with a W.C. (18) An electrical permit was issued in the third weekof October for the H-12 house, but it was not until mid November thatthe same permit was issued for the H-22. Electrical work was to employthe newer and superior loomex wiring. Insofar as physical standards wereconcerned, these were to be quite acceptable modern dwellings, utilizingall new materials. Some years later, in the summer and fall of 1948, theCentral Mortgage and Housing Corporation, which had taken over theresponsibilities of Wartime Housing Ltd., was to take out permits forboth houses, to replace the original block foundations by eight inchpoured concrete walls at a stated cost of $450.00 per dwelling. Thisrepresented the end of `central command' decision-making for andpublic investment in these places, however, as both houses were sold by1951. With the installation of these foundations, an element ofpermanence had been introduced into the structures and implicitlyadmitted by the new federal agency. And with the sale of the propertiesto individual householders, the question of whether these places wouldbe temporary became moot. In the event, over the next forty years, thehouseholders became "co-producers" with the original crowncorporation builders, to further develop the physical structures in aprocess of transformation contributing to the evolving culturallandscape of the present. (19) In early 1951 the new owner of the H'22 house took out permitsfor building and electrical work (Figure 6). In this he followed some ofthe most common of the early changes, namely to construct a basement andto install heavy wiring for a cooking range and hot water heater. Theowner was also listed as the contractor, although there is no record ofwho actually performed the work. Because the land sloped towards therear of the property, it was a simple matter to dig into Verb 1. dig into - examine physically with or as if with a probe; "probe an anthill"poke into, probepenetrate, perforate - pass into or through, often by overcoming resistance; "The bullet penetrated her chest" the slope toprovide a ground level entry to the basement at the back of the house.The effect of the work was to increase the enclosed floor space of thedwelling by some 50 per cent, and also to provide for up-to-date modernconveniences. Thereafter little happened until a new owner contractedfor a gas furnace Gas furnaceAn enclosure in which a gaseous fuel is burned. Domestic heating systems may have gas furnaces. Some industrial power plants are fired with gases that remain as a by-product of other plant processes. to be installed in the basement in 1957, followed by agas water heater the next year. A third owner, in 1966, redeveloped thebathroom, replacing all the original fixtures, and two years later thegas furnace was replaced. It would be surprising if this owner, acertified gas fitter gas fittern.One who installs or repairs gas pipes, fixtures, or appliances.Noun 1. gas fitter - a workman who installs and repairs gas fixtures and appliances , and listed as the owner-contractor, did not do thework himself. Two years later a 20 by 20 foot (400 square foot) doublecarport CARPORTCardiology A clinical trial–Coronary Artery Restenosis Prevention on Repeated Thromboxane-Antagonism Study that evaluated thromboxane A2-receptor blockade in preventing restenosis after PCTA in Pts with CAD. was added to the back of the house. It had a concrete base thatprovided support for the posts which rose to support the flat tar andgravel roof. The horizontally-placed rafters were over-sized at 2 by 10inches, providing a hint of future intentions. Because the site wassloping, the carport was at the same level as the basement entry and itsroof was at the level of the floor of the original house. In theVancouver area generally, and certainly on the north shore, theseopen-sided and flatroofed carports, attached or adjacent to the house,have often represented the first stage of a larger expansion of thedwelling, even when no expansion was originally envisaged or intended. A dozen years passed, during which time the house changed handsagain. Husband and wife applications were made by new owners in thesummer of 1982, a business licence for her and a building permit forhim. The aim was to provide space for a service business, run by thewife, and accessible from the lane behind the house. This waspermissible within certain guidelines under the zoning for thisresidential area, and a number of inspections were made to ensure thatthe total space devoted to the business occupied no more than 500 squarefeet and not more than 20 per cent of the total dwelling floor space. Infact the business was to occupy the converted and now wholly enclosedcarport area, and to extend a little way into the basement. Compliancewith the noise by-law was checked, fire extinguishers and smoke alarmsto approved standards were installed, and a health department inspectionwas carried out. Some extra electrical wiring was required, as was theprovision of a single off-street parking space. The building permitprovided for the construction of an extensive deck (36 feet by 12 feet)running across the back of the house, but in the event the deck did notextend beyond the house itself, making it a more modest 28 feet.Nevertheless, the roof of the carport now came to serve as the floor ofa new living surface, albeit outside the main dwelling enclosure.Seasonal `outdoor living' has always been popular on the westcoast, and to build an upper deck over a carport is a common practice,especially on south- or west-facing sides of dwellings built on slopingland, as in the present case. The 2 by 10 inch rafters of the originalcarport now served as floor joists. Thanks to the foresight of theprevious owner this expansion probably involved less constructionupheaval and expense than might otherwise have been experienced. The deck was not to last for long, however, as two years later, in1984, it was demolished to make way for a major addition to thedwelling. Two bedrooms and a bathroom were to form a new upstairs, andthe portion of the deck over the original carport (now enclosed andhousing the business below) was to be enclosed for a dining room. Thisspace was adjacent to the original small kitchen, which was also to beslightly enlarged by building the sink and counters out into the newroom, although they were still to face back to the kitchen'sU-shaped working area. The design also `modernized' this work area,bringing it into conformity with the builder's rule of thumb thatthe sink, cooking range and refrigerator should all be within arm'sreach of a person working in the triangle defined by the locations ofthese appliances. And appearances were now to count. An open towerstaircase leading from the foyer was to connect the two floors. Theroofs were to be arranged in such a way as to conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?"fit, meetcoordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" the popularwest coast "mine shed" look, with a prominent skylight skylightRoof opening covered with translucent or transparent glass or plastic designed to admit daylight. Skylights have found wide application admitting steady, even light in industrial, commercial, and residential buildings, especially those with a northern orientation. filtering light into the living room, even as a shaft of sunlightpenetrates the skylight of a mine building on a steep mountainside, or,in a layering of images, sunlight highlights a glade to relieve thegloom of the coastal forest. If the metaphors are mixed, the physicalexpressions nevertheless blend well to create an attractive regionalstyle, one that fits the locality, especially when the image isreinforced, as it was in this case, by a cedar shake roof and cedarsiding around the whole enlarged structure. But such construction provides only the shell of enclosed space Noun 1. enclosed space - space that is surrounded by somethingcavityspace - an empty area (usually bounded in some way between things); "the architect left space in front of the building"; "they stopped at an open space in the jungle"; "the space between .Within a month a permit was issued for electrical work of quiteambitious scope: rough wiring and fittings for 33 light outlets, 55 wallreceptacles, 33 switches, five fans and six thermostats; further wiring,some at 220 volts, was also to be supplied to the kitchen range, clothesdryer, dishwasher, six space heaters, furnace, 12 recessed light A recessed light or downlight (also pot light in Canadian English, sometimes can light [for canister light] in American English) is a light fixture that is installed into a hollow opening in a ceiling. fixtures and a Jacuzzi. Small wonder that a new 200 amp main service wasalso installed, with 24 circuits, some six times the capacity of wiringfor the original house. Early in the new year the new bathroom on thesecond floor was plumbed with two basins, toilet, bath tub and shower,while the bathroom on the main floor was refitted with new fixtures. Inaddition, to forestall fore��stall?tr.v. fore��stalled, fore��stall��ing, fore��stalls1. To delay, hinder, or prevent by taking precautionary measures beforehand. See Synonyms at prevent.2. drainage problems, a sump pump was installed inthe basement. Inside the shell of enclosure, such installations make amodern North Vancouver house both functional and comfortable beyond theminimum. Little wonder that, in contrast to the $500.00 stated cost ofthe deck two years earlier (probably for materials only) the estimatedcost of this latest addition was $42,000.00 for materials and somecontracting. In comparison with the dramatic changes to this house, the H-12house underwent less change overall, although the expansion seems tohave been equally well thought out. Construction followed the lead ofexisting walls and dimensions, and thus maintained the integrity of thewartime house. The appearance of the modified dwelling does not obscureor deny the look of the original. The first owner, in 1952, up-gradedthe house by installing wiring for a kitchen range and water heater.Four years later a new owner installed a gas furnace. After another sixyears had passed a third owner decided to change the range and waterheater from electricity to gas. Four years later, in 1966, moreelectrical work was carried out, this time to provide the heavy 220 voltwiring to operate a clothes dryer. For this a new service also had to beinstalled and the owner was listed as contractor, although whether heactually performed the skilled work is not clear. Thus from 1941 to 1966the only changes were to renew the utility fixtures, these changesrepresenting phases in the modernization of living. In 1977, 11 years following the installation of the new electricalservice, a new owner obtained permission to build an addition to thehouse (Figure 7). This was to be one large upstairs room, 14 feet by 28feet, occupying the rear area over the kitchen and leaving intact thesloping roof of the original house as it appeared from the front. Theroom was to be a combined bedroom and studio. (20) The novelty of theexpansion lay in its vertical dimensions, for a north-facing clerestory clerestoryor clearstory(both: klĭr`stōr'ē, –stôr'ē), a part of a building whose walls rise higher than the roofs of adjoining parts of the structure. was to extend above the original roof ridge, allowing north light toenter high in the room to be reflected to lower levels by the slopingceiling opposite. Practical purposes were also served in that closet andstorage units were installed under the undisturbed front roof. The factthat the chimney and bathroom vent from downstairs passed through thenew room might have been an annoyance, but the column carrying theseserved to divide bedroom from studio in an otherwise open plan, thushelping to define spaces in the new room. In the following year, 1978, awoodburning stove was installed in the living room on the main floor,the new chimney running up through one of the new upstairs closets.Structural alterations were required for reasons of safety, with heatshields covering adjacent wall surfaces, regulation distances betweensteel flues and wooden structures being observed, and a tile apron beinglaid around the stove itself. At an estimated before-construction priceof $5,000.00 for the expansion, including cladding The plastic or glass sheath that is fused to and surrounds the core of an optical fiber. The cladding's mirror-like coating keeps the light waves reflected inside the core. The cladding is covered with a protective outer jacket. See fiber optics glossary. the whole house withvertically applied cedar siding, and another $500.00 for the woodburningstove, this was a clever development of the dwelling. The second floorwas made much more capacious, and the new space was well lit. Byrespecting the integrity of the existing dwelling, and so avoidingserious structural changes, value for the construction dollar wasaugmented. Further, the appearance of the house remains unmistakablythat of an H-12 wartime house, and yet the additions are carried out insuch a way as to bring the style fully up-to-date. One step further wastaken in 1982 when a sun deck was built around the south-west corner ofthe building. Investing and Improving, Building and Diversifying The investment and physical effort in property development, asshown in these examples, are commonly justified in terms of the increasein land values; without property development, the argument holds, theland in time would have to be redeveloped to a use that would yield ahigher rent. Yet the two examples cited above hardly conform to suchprocesses. Throughout the history of the dwellings the alterationssuggest two directions of activity, namely, basic upgrading anddeveloping highly personal spatial arrangements. This is hardly thestuff of rapid resale for quick profit, even in one of the more activereal estate markets in the country. Owners would not wish to lose moneyon selling their houses of course, but what is just as clear is that toinvest the house with meanings of home is a matter of personal priority.Further, the frequency of personal ownership change associated withrenovations is not remarkable, there having been four owners of eachhouse until the early 1980s, representing an average ownership tenure ofseven to eight years. (21) Even if the "stayers and builders" are a stablepopulation, however, they cannot escape the economics of building: it ischeaper per unit area to build anew than it is to make new sections fitold, to make new materials blend well with old, and to design the`machinery' of the dwelling to work efficiently with certainadditions. Some would say that places such as wartime houses should bedemolished, that half a century is long enough for `temporary'dwellings. Wartime houses are indeed being demolished and replaced withnew structures, and sometimes the land uses also change. In this processmaterials are renewed, new designs are introduced and urban developmentsin the area proceed according to current needs. Some owners have takenthis approach. But not all could do this even if they wished to do so,for replacement dwellings cannot be built incrementally. A new housemust be built all at once, at least to a basic standard and degree offinish. The continuing "production" of the dwelling over timeby the owners must start from an initial base unit that is invariably in��var��i��a��ble?adj.Not changing or subject to change; constant.in��vari��a��bil more expensive than is an addition. Even at $42,000.00, the addition tothe H-22 house described above was much less costly than would have beenthe job of razing the dwelling and starting afresh a��fresh?adv.Once more; anew; again: start afresh.afreshAdverbonce moreAdv. 1. . For individualhouseholders who want to stay but enlarge their homes, the emphasis ison additions, modifications and renovations, rather than replacements. When they are built, however, replacement dwellings are notguaranteed to be architecturally interesting or attractive, and indeedmost places are built to conventional stock plans, perhaps with a littlevariation introduced. It is worth keeping in mind that the originalwartime houses were `architect designed', even if they did strikesome as prosaic. An architect works for a client after all, whereas thehome owner home ownerhome n → propri��taire occupantis the client. In 1941 the client was the Canadiangovernment, anxious to house people adequately, inexpensively,pleasantly if possible, but certainly not extravagantly. And the chargewas to relieve a housing crisis that affected the whole country. In thehalf century that has followed, a generally greater prosperity has beenexperienced, and that has enabled many homeowners to develop theirhouses for their own enjoyment and possible equity growth. Theincremental additions and alterations implied by this, involving a largebut indefinite number indefinite numbern.A variable number. of owners, may not have provided a `high art'sort of architectural interest, but they cannot fail to be culturallyinteresting. And architectural interest will always derive from this.(22) Almost inadvertantly, the federal government through its housingpolicies during World War II provided Canada with a durable core housingstock of significant proportions and simple design, while maintaining apretence of denying the intention to do so. Ordinary Canadians in theirturn, for whom "...homeownership has long had a special meaning...", went on in a myriad of ways to make these houses into homes.(23) By these gestures they personalized the basic wartime dwellingunits and figuratively gave voice to an opinion that what they wantedand needed was the chance simply to live in a decent place and to dothings for themselves. A remarkable, variegated and continually evolvingpan-Canadian cultural landscape has been the result. (1) . Marvin Mikesell, "Landscape", InternationalEncyclopedia of the Social Sciences The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences was first published in 1968. Edited by David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton. See alsoInternational Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences , David L. Sills, ed., Volume 8(Crowell Collier and Macmillan 1968) 575-80. Sauer's own wordswere: "... landscape is not simply an actual scene viewed by anobserver. The geographic landscape is a generalization derived from theobservation of individual scenes ... The geographer ... has in mind thegenetic, and proceeds by comparison." Carl O. Sauer Carl Ortwin Sauer (December 24, 1889 – July 18, 1975) was an American geographer. He was born in Warrenton, Missouri and graduated from the University of Chicago with a Ph.D. in 1915. , "TheMorphology of Landscape," University of California The University of California has a combined student body of more than 191,000 students, over 1,340,000 living alumni, and a combined systemwide and campus endowment of just over $7.3 billion (8th largest in the United States). Publications inGeography, 2, 2 (1925); 19-54. Quotation taken from Chapter 16 in Landand Life: A Selection of Writings from Carl Ortwin Sauer, John Leighly,ed., (Berkeley and Los Angeles Los Angeles(lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. : University of California Press "UC Press" redirects here, but this is also an abbreviation for University of Chicago PressUniversity of California Press, also known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. 1965). Areview of the conceptual discussion of the term `landscape', andmore particularly `cultural landscape', is contained in Man, Spaceand Environment: Concepts in Contemporary Human Geography Human geography, is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment, with particular reference to the causes and consequences of the spatial distribution of human activity on the Earth's surface. , Paul WardEnglish and Robert C. Mayfield, eds., (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , London, Toronto: OxfordUniversity Press 1972) 1-15 and 55-68. In the present study the housinglandscape created by federal government action was necessarilyfragmented because of its construction in localities scattered acrossthe country: centralized decision-making as regards wartime housing,expressing a narrow and prescriptive view of what could be built, thusresulted in a residential landscape of `decentralized' but uniformcomponents. Wartime housing, taken as a national cultural landscape, isnecessarily a constructed generalization. (2) . After Wartime Housing Ltd. merged with the new CentralMortgage and Housing Corporation, shortly after the war, approximately20,000 additional dwellings were built for veterans. This represented anextension of the wartime program -- the focus of this paper. Forreference to the veterans' program see Jill Wade, Houses for All:the struggle for social housing in Vancouver, 1919-50. (Vancouver: UBCPress, 1994) Chapter 5. (3) . Lynn Hannley, "Substandard substandard,adj below an acceptable level of performance. Housing" in House, Homeand Community: Progress in Housing Canadians, John R. Miron ed.(Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press and CMHC CMHCcommunity mental health center. ,1993), 203-19. (4) . On rural-urban fringe slums see S.D. Clark, The SuburbanSociety (Toronto: University of Toronto Research at the University of Toronto has been responsible for the world's first electronic heart pacemaker, artificial larynx, single-lung transplant, nerve transplant, artificial pancreas, chemical laser, G-suit, the first practical electron microscope, the first cloning of T-cells, Press, 1966); Richard Harris,"A Working-Class Suburb for Immigrants, Toronto 1909-1913,"Geographical Review The Geographical Review is an academic journal of the American Geographical Society. Currently published quarterly in January, April, July, and October, the first issue was printed in 1916. , 81, 3 (1991), 318-32, and, Unplanned Suburbs:Toronto's American tragedy, 1900 to 1950. (Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University,mainly at Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins in 1867 had a group of his associates incorporated as the trustees of a university and a hospital, endowing each with $3.5 million. Daniel C. Press, 1996); James Lemon, "Plans forEarly Twentieth Century Toronto: Lost in Management," Urban HistoryReview, 18, 1 (1989), 11-31; Yves Brunet, "L'exode urbain:essai de classification de la population exurbaine des Cantons del'Est", Le geographe canadien, 24, 4 (1980), 385-405; L. J.Evenden, "Fleetwood in Surrey: The Making of a Place" inBritish Columbia British Columbia,province (2001 pop. 3,907,738), 366,255 sq mi (948,600 sq km), including 6,976 sq mi (18,068 sq km) of water surface, W Canada.Geography : Geographical Essays Published in Honour of A.MacPherson, Paul M. Koroscil, ed. (Burnaby: Simon Fraser University Simon Fraser University,main campus at Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada; provincially supported; coeducational; chartered 1963, opened 1965. The Harbour Centre campus in downtown Vancouver opened in 1989. ,Department of Geography), 223-79; Evenden and Walker, "FromPeriphery to Centre: The Changing Geography of the Suburbs" in TheChanging Social Geography Social geography is the study of how society affects geographical features and how environmental factors affect society. Case Study: India Victims of their own historical success, Indians suffer from a rural economy. of Canadian Cities, Larry S. Bourne Bourne,town (1990 pop. 16,064), Barnstable co., SE Mass., crossed by Cape Cod Canal; settled 1627, inc. 1884. Bourne Bridge (1935), across the canal, made the town an entry point to Cape Cod and a resort and commercial center. and DavidF. Ley LEY. This word is old French, a corruption of loi, and signifies law; for example, Termes de la Ley, Terms of the Law. In another, and an old technical sense, ley signifies an oath, or the oath with compurgators; as, il tend sa ley aiu pleyntiffe. Brit. c. 27. , eds. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's UniversityPress, 1993) 234-51. (5) . John Bacher, "Too Good To Last? The Social ServiceInnovations of Wartime Housing", Women and Environments, 10, 2,(1988), 10-13. p. 10. (6) . The most comprehensive contemporary study of the actualconditions of housing was carried out by the Subcommittee on Housing andCommunity Planning of the Advisory Committee on Reconstruction andCommunity Planning. The Final Report, generally referred to as theCurtis Report, after the Chairman of the Subcommittee, was published in1944. (Ottawa: King's Printer). (7) . Privy Council Privy CouncilHistorically, the British sovereign's private council. Once powerful, the Privy Council has long ceased to be an active body, having lost most of its judicial and political functions since the middle of the 17th century. 1286, February 24, 1941 (8) . Jill Wade, "Wartime Housing Limited, 1941-1947: Canadianhousing policy at the crossroads", Urban History Review, 15, 1,(1986) 40-59. (9) . Deryck W. Holdsworth and Joan Simon, "Housing Form andUse of Domestic Space," in Miron, House, Home and Community ...1993. p. 191. (10) . James McKellar, "Building Technology and the ProductionProcess", in Miron, House, Home and Community ... 1993. p. 140. (11) . A retrospective study retrospective study,a study in which a search is made for a relationship between one phenomenon or condition and another that occurred in the past (e.g. of Levittown, a new town built in 1947initially to house veterans on Long Island, suggests similar problems ofcommunity reaction. "From the outside, Levittown met with hostilityand criticism -- a fear by neighbouring towns of instant ghettos, forexample -- ... "From the Foreword by William R. Taylor William R. Taylor is the name of: William Rogers Taylor (born 1811), Admiral in the U.S. Navy William Robert Taylor (born 1820), Governor of Wisconsin William R. Taylor, Psychatrist, Author of "Lethal American Confusion" (see Fuzzy cognitive map) . Barbara M.Kelly, Expanding the American Dream: Building and Rebuilding Levittown(Albany: State University of New York Press The State University of New York Press (or SUNY Press), founded in 1966, is a university press that is part of State University of New York system. External linkState University of New York Press , 1993). (12) . Burwell R. Coon coon:see raccoon. , "Wartime Housing", RoyalArchitectural Institute of Canada The Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC), founded in 1907, is a Canadian association representing over 3,600 architects, and faculty and graduates of Canadian Schools of Architecture.RAIC is the voice for architecture and its practice in Canada. Journal, 19, 1 (1942), 3-8. (13) . John C. Bacher, Keeping to the Marketplace: The Evolution ofCanadian Housing Policy (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen'sUniversity Press, 1993). (14) . A key point in the present context concerns the impact offinancial arrangements, once the federal government ceased to be afactor following the war, when the program ended and the houses weresold. An important element in the `inner workings' of the social`machinery' that produces variable and divergent culturallandscapes is identified in a discussion of the 1938 National HousingAct, which covered the post-war period of privatization privatization:see nationalization. privatizationTransfer of government services or assets to the private sector. State-owned assets may be sold to private owners, or statutory restrictions on competition between privately and publicly owned of the wartimehousing stock. The Act "... created a class of joint government and lendinginstitution Noun 1. lending institution - a financial institution that makes loansfinancial institution, financial organisation, financial organization - an institution (public or private) that collects funds (from the public or other institutions) and invests them in mortgages that required only 10 per cent owner's equityin the property. Still the institutions balked balk?v. balked, balk��ing, balksv.intr.1. To stop short and refuse to go on: The horse balked at the jump.2. at investing in mortgageson low-cost houses in western Canada This article is about the region in Canada. For the school in Calgary, see Western Canada High School.Western Canada, commonly referred to as the West . Lenders concentrated their highratio mortgages in what they believed were good risk centres -- suburbanToronto, Hamilton and Vancouver received 45 per cent of such loansduring the first year. These urban and regional preferences of majorlenders were acknowledged as late as the early 1960s and may persisttoday as one obstacle to a truly national mortgage market. ... theregional biases were not solved by the 1944 NHA, which perpetuated thejoint loans and the guarantee against loss." Michael Doucet andJohn Weaver “John Weaver” redirects here. For other people named John Weaver, see John Weaver (disambiguation).John Weaver (July 21, 1673 – September 24, 1760) was a dancer and choreographer and is commonly known as the father of English , Housing the North American North Americannamed after North America.North American blastomycosissee North American blastomycosis.North American cattle ticksee boophilusannulatus. City (Montreal and Kingston:McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991), p. 294. (15) . An earlier study of dwelling expansion, covering the wholenorth shore of Greater Vancouver, thus including the City of NorthVancouver and the District Municipalities of North Vancouver and WestVancouver, found that the developing life cycle of households during thechild-raising years was the chief determinant of house expansions.Leonard J. Evenden "The Expansion of Domestic Space onVancouver's North Shore" in A Social Geography of Canada:Essays Originally Published in Honour of J. Wreford Watson, Rev. ed.,Guy M. Robinson ed. (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991), 220-44. (16) . While it must not be forgotten that some wartime housingdistricts have been razed in the half century since their building, andindividual owners have also demolished their dwellings, we are primarilyconcerned here with the fate of houses that have survived and beenmodified. (17) . Discussion in this section is based upon field observationand analyses of records made available by the City of North Vancouver. (18) . The toilet is usually referred to in the records of thetimes as the W.C., perhaps a reflection of the fact that water closetsand flush toilets were by no means universal across the country. Theterm seems now to have dropped out of general use. (19) . For Kelly the continuing process of dwelling modification inLevittown has been so important that she indicates the focus of herstudy to be "...the homeowner as coproducer of the domesticenvironment ..." Expanding the American Dream ... 1993. p. 3. (20) . A variety of terms is in general use for expansion plans andspaces. Bedroom and studio are general terms, and do not necessarilysignify that the spaces will only ever be used for these purposes. Theymay be taken to indicate an intention at the time that the plans forexpansion are approved. Evenden, "The Expansion of Domestic Space..." 1991. (21) . In my earlier north shore study, which included in thesample a number of wartime houses, "stayers and builders"lived in their homes, on average, "... over a decade beforeexpanding them, and remain(ed) for a number of years afterwards".Evenden, "The Expansion of Domestic Space ..." 1991. p.221.While the literature has often emphasized the (heightened) frequency ofmoving as a variable in social behaviour, it must be remembered thatmany people do not move frequently. (22) . An engaging discussion of this point may be found in WitoldRybczynski Witold Rybczynski (born in 1943, in Edinburgh, Scotland), is a Canadian architect, professor and writer.Rybczynski was born in Edinburgh of Polish parentage and raised in Surrey, England before moving at a young age to Canada. , The Most Beautiful House in the World (Markham: PenguinBooks, 1989). (23) . Harris and Pratt, "The Meaning of Home, Homeownership,and Public Policy" in The Changing Social Geography of CanadianCities, Larry S. Bourne and David F. Ley, eds. (Montreal and Kingston:McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993) 234-251. See p. 286.